老子

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基本信息

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类别 信息
姓名： 老子(李聃) Li Dan 姓李名耳，字聃，一字伯阳，或曰谥伯阳
出生日期： 春秋末期，不详
逝世日期： 春秋末期，不详
所属学派： 中国道家
研究领域： 哲学



Lao Tzu ( or ), also rendered as Laozi (; was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He is the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching, A central figure in Chinese culture, Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their lineage. Laozi's work has been embraced by both various anti-authoritarian movements and Chinese Legalism.

老子，中国古代的一位哲学家和文学家，《道德经》作者，中国道教的创始人。老子是一个半传奇式的人物，通常会被描述成公元前6世纪的孔子。现在的一些历史学家认为，老子活动的时间为公元前4世纪的战国时代。老子是中国文化的核心人物，李姓的唐朝皇帝和现代人都认为老子是他们的祖先。中国法家学派广泛接受了老子的思想学说，同时老子的思想和作品也在各种反权威运动中成为了有力的工具。

名字

Lao Tzu itself is a Chinese honorific title: 脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。 (Old *rˤu ʔ, "old, venerable")[1] and 脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。 (Old *tsəʔ, "master").[1] In traditional accounts, Laozi's actual personal name is usually given as Li Er (脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。, Old *rəʔ nəʔ,[1] Mod. Lǐ Ěr) and his courtesy name as Boyang (trad. 脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。, simp. 脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。, Old *Pˤrak-lang,[1] Mod. Bóyáng). A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan (脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。, Lǐ Dān).[2][3][4] Sima Qian in his biography mentions his name as Lǐ Ěr, and his literary name as Lǐ Dān, which became the deferential Lǎo Dān (脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。, Lǎo Dān).[5] The name Lǎo Dān also appears interchangeably with Lǎo Zi in early Daoist texts such as the Zhuangzi,[5] and may also be the name by which Lao Tzu was addressed by Confucius when they possibly met.[5] According to the Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, "the 'founder' of philosophical Daoism is the quasi-legendary Laodan, more commonly known as Laozi (Old Master)".[6]

在中国，“老子”这个词本意是一个尊称。一般认为，老子的真实名字是李聃,字为伯阳，因此也有人尊称其为老聃。 根据《Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy》（《亚洲哲学百科全书》）中所述，人们将道家哲学的奠基人称之为老子。

The honorific title Lao Tzu has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is still Lao Tzu, which is based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. Other forms include the variants Lao-tze, Lao-tsu and Laozi/Lao Zi.

老子的称号有很多种形式，这也导致了在不同语境下的语意不明。但目前最常见的称呼仍然是由威妥玛式拼音而来的“老子”（Lao Tzu）。在19世纪，其称呼通常用罗马拼音“Lao-tse”。其它的变体形式通常包括Lao-tze，Lao-tsu和Laozi/Lao zi。


The honorific title Lao Tzu has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is still Lao Tzu, which is based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system.[7][8] In the 19th century, the title was usually romanized as Lao-tse.[8][9] Other forms include the variants Lao-tze,[10] Lao-tsu[11] and Laozi/Lao Zi.

As a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name "Supreme Old Lord" }}, Tàishàng Lǎojūn) and as one of the "Three Pure Ones". During the Tang dynasty, he was granted the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" ,}} Tàishàng Xuānyuán Huángdì).

作为一个宗教人物形象时，他被冠以“至尊老爷”、“太守郎”、“三圣”之一等称号。在唐朝，他还被授予“至高无上的神秘而原始的皇帝”的称号。

历史观点

In the mid-twentieth century, a consensus emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands".[12]

The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BC. His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the imperial archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi (脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。) and wrote a book in 15 parts. In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BC reign of Duke Xian of the Qin Dynasty.[13][14] The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was part of the Guodian Chu Slips. It was written on bamboo slips, and dates to the late 4th century BC.[15]

According to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.


According to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou.[16] This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.[17][18]

He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier.



He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu.[19] In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier.

The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.



The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.

Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.


Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi,[20] including the emperors of the Tang dynasty.[21][20][22] This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.[23]

The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others say he was the Buddha himself.


The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.[24] In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others say he was the Buddha himself.[17][25]

A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Taoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao.



A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Taoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao.[26]

The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Tao Te Ching, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Tao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.


The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Tao Te Ching, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Tao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.[27]

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Masters, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao. Other myths state that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.


The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Masters, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.[28]


二十世纪中叶，学者们一致认为，老子这个人的历史性是值得怀疑的，《道德经》是“多人汇编的道教语录”。对于老子的最早的记载存在于公元前1世纪史学家司马迁的《史记》。一方面，有人认为老子是公元前6或者5史记和孔子同时代的人。他姓李，名字叫做耳或聃。他是朝廷档案馆的官员，在去世之前分两部分写了一本书。另一方面，老子是不同于孔子的另外一个人，并且被称为老莱子，写了一本包含15部分的书。此外，他是宫廷占星家老聃，生活在公元前4史记的秦朝咸阳。迄今为止发现的最古老的《道德经》的文字是《郭店楚简》中的一部分。这些内容记录在竹简上，可以追溯到公元前4世纪后期。

根据记载，老子是一位学者，曾为周朝的档案管理员。据记载，这使他能够广泛接触黄帝的作品和其他当时的经典作品。在这些故事中，老子从未开设过正规学校，但仍然吸引了大批学生和忠实的徒弟。讲述他与孔子相遇的故事有很多，最著名的是《庄子》。 老子有时被认为来自楚国的朱人村。在老子结婚的地方，据说他有一个儿子，名叫宗，后来成了一名著名的战士。关于宗的故事中，他打败了很多敌人，获得了战争的胜利，然后抛弃了敌人的尸体，被秃鹫吃掉。老子在周游和讲学的路上正好来到了现场，并被发现是宗的父亲。宗从小就与老子分开。老子教导儿子，对于被打败的敌人需要给予尊重，对死者的不尊重会使他的敌人报复。宗对此非常认同，并且下令让士兵埋葬敌人的尸体。并且为双方的死者举行葬礼哀悼，从而实现了持久的和平。

李氏家族可以追溯到老子，包括唐朝的皇帝。这个家族被成为陇西李氏。根据辛普森的观点，尽管其中的许多血统都让人怀疑，但是这证明了老子对于中国文化的影响。

在司马迁记录的第三个故事中，老子对于在成周(翻译者注：是洛阳的旧称)的生活感到厌倦，并且察觉到王朝的衰落。80岁那年，他大胆的跑到西部去隐居，生活在动荡不安的边疆。在西部，他被守卫尹喜认出来。哨兵要求老子为了国家的利益着想而留下他的智慧，然后才允许他离开。老子写的文字被称为《道德经》，尽管该文字的当前版本包括以后的内容。在这个故事的其他版本中，守卫被作品打动了，以至于他成为了老子的徒弟并与老子一起离开。在其他版本中，老子最后到达印度，成为了释加牟尼的老师。也有人认为他是佛陀本人。

在七世纪的作品《三洞珠囊》中描述了老子和尹喜之间的关系。老子到达了西部边疆时假装自己是农民。被尹喜认了出来，尹喜要求师从老子。老子对于被认出感到不满，要求尹喜解释其拜师的原因。尹喜表达了自己追寻道的强烈愿望，并且解释说，他长期的占星学的研究让他认识到老子的方法。尹喜被老子收为弟子。这被认为是道教大师和弟子之间互动的典范，反映了一个求道者在被接受之前必须经历的考验。一个追随者应该证明自己的决心和才能，清楚的表达自己的愿望，表明自己在实现道的道路上已经取得了进步。

《三洞珠囊》的故事延续了一个追随者想要的追求。就像很多其他的教义一样，老子在传授《道德经》时，尹喜接受了很多戒律。而这些戒律只是初步的一个任务，尹喜还需要很多的修行来完善他的道，所以老子给了他三年时间来完善他的“道”。尹喜全身心的投入到道的学习当中，在三年时间过后，尹喜再次表现出决心和完全的信任，向市场发出了一只败家子作为商定的标志。最终，他再次与老子见面，老子宣布阴天仙人的名字被列在天上，并号召天上大游行，将尹喜穿上仙人的外衣。故事中，老子赋予尹喜许多头衔，并带他踏上了整个宇宙的旅程，甚至进入了九个天堂。经过这段奇妙的旅程，这两个圣人进入野蛮人的西部。训练时期，团聚和旅行代表着中世纪道教中最高的宗教等级，即“三洞的感受者”。在这个传说中，老子是完美的道家大师，尹喜是理想的道家学生。老子被呈现为道的世俗化身，传授道给人们，让人解脱获得救赎。尹喜则遵循准备，测试，培训和培训的正式顺序。

个洞穴的珍珠袋延续了追随者的追求。老子转传《道德经》时，银溪受命，以及其他教义和经文，就像道教信徒在受命时接受许多方法，教义和经典一样。这只是最初的圣职，殷熙仍然需要额外的时间来完善他的美德，因此老子给了他三年来完善他的道。银溪全职奉献生活。约定的时间过后，银溪再次表现出决心和完全的信任，向市场发出了一只败家子作为商定的标志。最终，他再次与老子见面，老子宣布阴天仙人的名字被列在天上，并号召天上大游行，将阴溪穿上仙人的外衣。故事继续说，老子赋予银溪许多头衔，并带他踏上了整个宇宙的旅程，甚至进入了九个天堂。经过这段奇妙的旅程，这两个圣人进入野蛮人的西部。训练时期，团聚和旅行代表着中世纪道教中最高的宗教等级，即“三个洞穴的感受者”。在这个传说中，老子是完美的道家大师，银溪是理想的道家学生。老子被呈现为陶行世化身为人类的救赎而传授他的教their。银溪遵循准备，测试，培训和培训的正式顺序。


自汉代以来，老子的故事就带有强烈的宗教色彩。随着道教的生根发芽，老子被当作神来崇拜。人们认为老子是道的启示者，这导致了天师道的形成，天师道是第一个有组织的宗教教派。在后来成熟的道家传统中，老子逐渐被视为道的化身。据说他在整个历史中经历了无数的“转变” ，并以各种各样的化身形象来启蒙求道的信徒。宗教道教经常认为，“老子”在写完《道德经》之后并没有消失，而是一生都在游历和揭示道。

道家神话中，老子是在他母亲凝视一颗流星的时候怀上的。据说，他在母亲的子宫里待了62年，然后出生了，生下老子时他的母亲正靠在一棵李子树上。据说老子长成了一个成年人后，满脸灰白的胡须，长长的耳垂，既象征着智慧，又象征着长寿。还有一些神话传说，老子是伏羲的化身，是伏羲13次重生的最后一次，他活了九百九十年，用他的一生旅行来揭示道。


道德经

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), though the identity of its author(s) or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history. It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy – the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body, senses and desires.


Main articles: Tao Te Ching, Tao, and Wu wei
文件:Ping Sien Si - 016 Lao zi (16135526115).jpg
Laozi Immortal and Grand Master of Heaven

The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), though the identity of its author(s) or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history.[29][30] It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy – the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body, senses and desires.

Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.


The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao.[31] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.[32]

It is a concept used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi.


Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.[32]


Wu wei (無為), literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".[33]


Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower in traditional accounts, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Lao Tsu influenced millions of Chinese people by his psychological understanding. He persuaded people by his inaction and non-speaking.


It is a concept used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi.[32]


Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.


通常，老子被认为是《道德经》的作者。但是《道德经》作者或编纂者的身份一直是人们争论的焦点。这是中国宇宙起源论中最重要的论文之一。老子和大多数中国古代哲学家一样，常常用悖论、类推、挪用古语、重复、对称、押韵、韵律等方式来阐释自己的思想。事实上，整本书可以看作一个类比——在冥想中，统治者是意识或自我，而无数的生物或帝国是对身体、感官和欲望的体验。

《道德经》以其作者老子的名字而被简称为《道德经》 ，他把道描述为一切存在的源泉和理想: 它是看不见的，但不是超越的，非常强大却极其卑微的，是万物的根源。人们有欲望和自由意志(因此能够改变自己的本性)。但是许多人的行为“不自然” ，打破了道的自然平衡。《道德经》意图引导人们“回归”到他们的自然状态，与道和谐相处。语言和传统智慧受到批判性的评价。道教认为它们天生带有偏见，是人为的，广泛使用悖论来强化观点。

Livia Kohn说明老子是如何鼓励改变方法或返回“自然”而非行动的。技术可能带来错误的进步感。老子所提供的答案是不排斥的技术，而是寻求平静的状态无为，摆脱欲望。这与老子鼓励统治者保持人民“无知”或“思想简单”的许多言论有关。一些学者坚持认为这种解释忽略了宗教语境，另一些学者则质疑这种解释是对文本哲学连贯性的辩护。如果老子真的打算告诉统治者让他们的人民保持无知，这是非常寻常的政治建议。然而，文本中的“谷神”、“灵魂“等术语，具有形而上的语境，并不能与作品的纯道德解读相吻合。

无为是“道德经”的核心概念。“无为”的概念是多方面的，甚至在英语翻译中也体现在单词的多种含义上。在文学意义上，它可能意味着“不做任何事情”，“不强迫”，“不行动”，“虚无”，“自发行动”和“随时间流逝”。无为是一个概念，用于解释人与自然或与道的和谐。它包括价值区分是意识形态的概念，并将各种野心都源于同一来源。老子广泛地以简单和谦卑为主要美德来使用这个词，这常常与自私的行为形成对比。从政治角度讲，这意味着避免战争，苛刻的法律和重税之类的情况。一些道教徒认为无为与深奥的实践之间存在联系，例如在庄子中发现的坐忘（清空身体意识和思想）。

道教

通常，人们认为老子是道家的创始人，与道德经和“原始”道家有着密切的联系。民间流行的道教典型地将玉皇大帝作为官方最具权威的神。知识分子(“精英”)的道家，如天师派，通常把老子(老君)和三净奉为神明。

影响

纵观中国历史，统治者利用非儒家圣人的思想，特别是老子和庄子，在任何时候都拒绝为任何统治者服务。庄子是老子最著名的思想继承者，对中国文人和中国文化产生了巨大的影响。老子影响了千百万中国人。他用他的无为和中庸来说服人们。

受老子影响的政治理论家主张在领导上要谦逊，在治国方法上要克制，要么是出于道德和和平主义的原因，要么是出于战术目的。在不同的背景下，各种反权威运动都接受了老子关于权力弱者的教诲。

老子是无政府主义的倡导者。左派自由主义者尤其受到老子的影响——无政府工团主义作家和活动家Rudolf Rocker在他1937年出版的《Nationalism and Culture》一书中赞扬了老子的“温和智慧”以及对政治权力与人民和社区的文化活动之间的对立的理解。在1910年发表在《大英百科全书》的文章中，Peter Kropotkin还指出，老子本质上是无政府主义概念的最早支持者之一。近年来，无政府主义者如 John p. Clark 和Ursula K. Le Guin 以不同的方式写了关于无政府主义和道教之间的联系的文章，特别强调了老子的教义。在讲述《道德经》时，Le Guin 写道，老子“并不把政治权力视为无限制的权利。他认为合法的权力是挣来的，错误的权力被篡夺了... ... 他认为自我牺牲或他人牺牲是权力的堕落，权力对任何遵循道路的人都是有效的。所以无政府主义者和道教徒会成为好朋友。”

右翼自由主义经济学家Murray Rothbard认为老子是第一个自由主义者，他把老子的政府观点比作Friedrich Hayek的自发秩序理论。James A. Dorn对此表示赞同，他在书中写道，老子和许多18世纪的自由主义者一样，“认为最小化政府的作用，让个人自发发展，才是实现社会和经济和谐的最佳途径。”同样，Cato研究所的David Boaz在他1997年出版的《The Libertarian Reader》一书中也引用了《道德经》中的一些段落。然而，哲学家Roderick Long认为，道家思想中的自由意志主义主题实际上是从早期的儒家作家那里借鉴来的。

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Baxter, William; Sagart, Laurent (20 September 2014). "Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction" (PDF). Retrieved 1 May 2018.
  2. ↑ Luo (2004, p. 118)
  3. ↑ Kramer (1986, p. 118)
  4. ↑ Kohn (2000, p. 2)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Sima Qian identifies the old master as a "Lao Dan"...." in Rainey, Lee Dian (2013) (in en). Decoding Dao: Reading the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) and the Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu). John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-118-46567-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=YNFiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31. 
  6. ↑ "The 'founder' of philosophical Daoism is the quasi-legendary Laodan, more commonly known as Laozi (Old Master)" in Carr, Dr Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (2002) (in en). Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge. p. 497. ISBN 978-1-134-96058-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=xIwrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA497. 
  7. ↑ Also encountered as Lao Tzu and Lao-Tzu.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Franz, Alex et al. ed. Google corpus. 2008. Retrieved 17 Jan;2014.
  9. ↑ Also encountered as Lao Tse and Lao-Tse.
  10. ↑ Also encountered as Lao Tze and Lao-Tze.
  11. ↑ Also encountered as Lao Tsu and Lao-Tsu.
  12. ↑ Watson (1968, p. 8)
  13. ↑ Fowler (2005, p. 96)
  14. ↑ Robinet (1997, p. 26)
  15. ↑ "Laozi". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2018. The discovery of two Laozi silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern Laozi research. The manuscripts, identified simply as 'A' (jia) and 'B' (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 BC. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the 'A' manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 BC.

    "Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the Laozi. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the Laozi. The tomb...is dated around 300 BC.
  16. ↑ "Lao Tzu (Lao Zi) Scroll Paintings and Posters". Edepot.com. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Simpkins & Simpkins (1999, pp. 12–13)
  18. ↑ Morgan (2001, pp. 223–24)
  19. ↑ Morgan (2001)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Woolf, Greg (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. pp. 218–19. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=Li+Er+Laozi. 
  21. ↑ Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1934), The Chinese: their history and culture, Volume 1 (2 ed.), Macmillan, p. 191, retrieved 8 February 2012, T'ai Tsung's family professed descent from Lao Tzu (for the latter's reputed patronymic was likewise Li)
  22. ↑ Hargett, James M. (2006). Stairway to Heaven: A Journey to the Summit of Mount Emei. SUNY Press. pp. 54–. ISBN 978-0-7914-6682-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=m21KGsV8ihgC&pg=PA54. 
  23. ↑ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999, p. 12)
  24. ↑ Kohn & Lafargue (1998, pp. 14, 17, 54–55)
  25. ↑ Morgan (2001, pp. 224–25)
  26. ↑ Kohn & Lafargue (1998, p. 55)
  27. ↑ Kohn & Lafargue (1998, pp. 55–56)
  28. ↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Kohn 3-4的引用提供文字
  29. ↑ Simpkins & Simpkins (1999, pp. 11–13)
  30. ↑ Morgan (2001, p. 223)
  31. ↑ Van Norden & Ivanhoe (2005, p. 162)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Kohn (2000, p. 22)
  33. ↑ Watts (1975, pp. 78–86)
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