气候系统

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模板:Good article

The five components of the climate system all interact.

Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).模板:Sfn Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns.[1][2] Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.


thumb|The five components of the climate system all interact.|alt=|330x330px Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

气候系统的五个组成部分都相互作用。地球的气候起源于五个主要气候系统组成部分的相互作用: 大气层(空气)、水圈(水)、冰圈(冰和永久冻土)、岩石圈(地球的上层岩石层)和生物圈(生物体)。气候是平均天气，通常持续30年，并且是由气候系统中的一系列过程决定的，比如洋流和风的模式。大气和海洋中的环流主要是由太阳辐射驱动的，并将热量从热带地区输送到太阳能量较少的地区。水循环也在整个气候系统中移动能量。此外，不同的化学元素，生命所必需的，不断循环之间的不同成分。

The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases.模板:Sfn Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

由于内部变异和外部强迫，气候系统可能发生变化。这些外部强迫可能是自然现象，比如太阳活动强度的变化和火山爆发，或者是人为造成的。温室气体的积累，主要是由燃烧化石燃料的人们排放的，正在导致全球变暖。人类活动也会释放冷却气溶胶，但其净效应远远小于温室气体。不同气候系统组成部分的反馈过程可以放大这些变化。

Components of the climate system

The atmosphere envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.9%).[3] Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as water vapour and carbon dioxide, are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are greenhouse gases which allow visible light from the Sun to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the infra-red radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise.模板:Sfn The hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of precipitation, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.模板:Sfn

The atmosphere envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.9%).; . Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as water vapour and carbon dioxide, are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are greenhouse gases which allow visible light from the Sun to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the infra-red radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of precipitation, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.

气候系统的组成大气层包裹着地球，从地表向外延伸数百公里。它主要由惰性氮(78%)、氧(21%)和氩(0.9%)组成。; .大气中的一些示踪气体，如水蒸气和二氧化碳，是对气候系统运作最为重要的气体，因为它们是温室气体，可以让太阳的可见光穿透到地球表面，但阻止地球表面放射出的一些红外线辐射，以平衡太阳辐射。这导致表面温度上升。水文循环是水在大气中的运动。水文循环不仅决定降水的模式，而且影响整个气候系统的能量运动。

The hydrosphere proper contains all the liquid water on Earth, with most of it contained in the world's oceans.模板:Sfn The ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface to an average depth of nearly 模板:Convert,模板:Sfn and can hold substantially more heat than the atmosphere.模板:Sfn It contains seawater with a salt content of about 3.5% on average, but this varies spatially.模板:Sfn Brackish water is found in estuaries and some lakes, and most freshwater, 2.5% of all water, is held in ice and snow.模板:Sfn

The hydrosphere proper contains all the liquid water on Earth, with most of it contained in the world's oceans. The ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface to an average depth of nearly , and can hold substantially more heat than the atmosphere. It contains seawater with a salt content of about 3.5% on average, but this varies spatially. Brackish water is found in estuaries and some lakes, and most freshwater, 2.5% of all water, is held in ice and snow.

水圈本身包含地球上所有的液态水，其中大部分包含在世界的海洋中。海洋覆盖了地球表面的71% ，平均深度接近，并且能够承受比大气层更多的热量。它所含的海水平均含盐量约为3.5% ，但这在空间上有所不同。咸水存在于河口和一些湖泊中，大部分淡水，占全部水量的2.5% ，存在于冰和雪中。

The cryosphere contains all parts of the climate system where water is solid. This includes sea ice, ice sheets, permafrost and snow cover. Because there is more land in the Northern Hemisphere compared to the Southern Hemisphere, a larger part of that hemisphere is covered in snow.模板:Sfn Both hemispheres have about the same amount of sea ice. Most frozen water is contained in the ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica, which average about 模板:Convert in height. These ice sheets slowly flow towards their margins.模板:Sfn

The cryosphere contains all parts of the climate system where water is solid. This includes sea ice, ice sheets, permafrost and snow cover. Because there is more land in the Northern Hemisphere compared to the Southern Hemisphere, a larger part of that hemisphere is covered in snow. Both hemispheres have about the same amount of sea ice. Most frozen water is contained in the ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica, which average about in height. These ice sheets slowly flow towards their margins.

冰冻圈包含了气候系统中水是固体的所有部分。这包括海冰、冰盖、永久冻土和积雪。因为南北半球的陆地面积比南南半球大，所以南半球大部分地区都被雪覆盖。两个半球的海冰数量大致相同。格陵兰岛和南极洲的冰原中含有大部分结冰的水，这些地方的平均高度约为。这些冰原慢慢地向它们的边缘流动。

The Earth's crust, specifically mountains and valleys, shapes global wind patterns: vast mountain ranges form a barrier to winds and impact where and how much it rains.模板:Sfn模板:Sfn Land closer to open ocean has a more moderate climate than land farther from the ocean.模板:Sfn For the purpose of modelling the climate, the land is often considered static as it changes very slowly compared to the other elements that make up the climate system.模板:Sfn The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate.模板:Sfn

The Earth's crust, specifically mountains and valleys, shapes global wind patterns: vast mountain ranges form a barrier to winds and impact where and how much it rains. Land closer to open ocean has a more moderate climate than land farther from the ocean. For the purpose of modelling the climate, the land is often considered static as it changes very slowly compared to the other elements that make up the climate system. The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate.

地壳，特别是山脉和山谷，形成了全球风的模式: 广阔的山脉形成了一道屏障，阻挡风和影响降雨的地点和数量。靠近开阔海洋的陆地比远离海洋的陆地气候更温和。为了建立气候模型，土地通常被认为是静止的，因为与构成气候系统的其他元素相比，土地的变化非常缓慢。大陆的位置决定了海洋的几何形状，因此影响了海洋环流的模式。海洋的位置对于控制全球热量和湿度的传递，因此对于确定全球气候非常重要。

Lastly, the biosphere also interacts with the rest of the climate system. Vegetation is often darker or lighter than the soil beneath, so that more or less of the Sun's heat gets trapped in areas with vegetation.模板:Sfn Vegetation is good at trapping water, which is then taken up by its roots. Without vegetation, this water would have run off to the closest rivers or other water bodies. Water taken up by plants instead evaporates, contributing to the hydrological cycle.模板:Sfn Precipitation and temperature influences the distribution of different vegetation zones.模板:Sfn Carbon assimilation from seawater by the growth of small phytoplankton is almost as much as land plants from the atmosphere.模板:Sfn While humans are technically part of the biosphere, they are often treated as a separate components of Earth's climate system, the anthroposphere, because of human's large impact on the planet.模板:Sfn

Lastly, the biosphere also interacts with the rest of the climate system. Vegetation is often darker or lighter than the soil beneath, so that more or less of the Sun's heat gets trapped in areas with vegetation. Vegetation is good at trapping water, which is then taken up by its roots. Without vegetation, this water would have run off to the closest rivers or other water bodies. Water taken up by plants instead evaporates, contributing to the hydrological cycle. Precipitation and temperature influences the distribution of different vegetation zones. Carbon assimilation from seawater by the growth of small phytoplankton is almost as much as land plants from the atmosphere. While humans are technically part of the biosphere, they are often treated as a separate components of Earth's climate system, the anthroposphere, because of human's large impact on the planet.

最后，生物圈也与气候系统的其他部分相互作用。植被往往比下面的土壤颜色更深或更浅，因此，或多或少的太阳热量被植被覆盖的地区所吸收。植物善于捕捉水分，然后用它的根吸收水分。如果没有植被，这些水会流向最近的河流或其他水体。植物吸收的水反而蒸发了，从而促进了水循环。降水和温度影响着不同植被带的分布。小型浮游植物从海水中吸收的碳几乎和从大气中吸收的陆地植物一样多。虽然从技术上讲，人类是生物圈的一部分，但由于人类对地球的巨大影响，他们往往被视为地球气候系统——人类圈——的一个独立组成部分。

Flows of energy, water and elements

Earth's atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy imbalance between the equator and the poles. It is further influenced by the rotation of Earth around its own axis.模板:Sfn

Energy and general circulation

The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as black-body radiation. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling.模板:Sfn

The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as black-body radiation. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling.

= = = 能量和大气环流 = = = 气候系统从太阳获得能量，从地核获得的能量要少得多，从月球获得的潮汐能也是如此。地球以两种形式向外层空间释放能量: 它直接反射一部分太阳辐射，释放出红外线辐射，称为黑体辐射。输入和输出能量的平衡，以及能量通过气候系统的过程，决定了地球的能量收支。当输入的总能量大于输出的能量时，地球的能量收支是正的，气候系统正在变暖。如果更多的能量被释放出去，那么能量预算就是负的，地球就会经历冷却。

More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the atmosphere and oceans.模板:Sfn Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator.模板:Sfn Due to the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells.模板:Sfn Monsoons, seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean. The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind.模板:Sfn

More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the atmosphere and oceans. Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator. Due to the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells. Monsoons, seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean. The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind.

到达热带地区的能量比到达极地地区的能量多，随之而来的温差推动了大气和海洋的全球循环。空气变暖时上升，变冷时向极地流动，变冷后又下沉，回到赤道。由于角动量守恒定律的存在，地球的自转使得北半球的空气偏向右边，南半球的空气偏向左边，从而形成了不同的大气单元。季风，主要发生在热带地区的风和降水的季节性变化，是由于陆块比海洋更容易升温而形成的。温度差引起陆地和海洋之间的压力差，驱动稳定的风。

Ocean water that has more salt has a higher density and differences in density play an important role in ocean circulation. The thermohaline circulation transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions.模板:Sfn Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the freezing point temperature.模板:Sfn Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called upwelling, which cools down the air above.模板:Sfn

Ocean water that has more salt has a higher density and differences in density play an important role in ocean circulation. The thermohaline circulation transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the freezing point temperature. Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called upwelling, which cools down the air above.

含盐量较高的海水具有较高的密度，密度差异在海洋环流中起着重要作用。温盐环流从热带向极地地区输送热量。海洋环流进一步受到风的相互作用的驱动。盐的组成也影响凝固点的温度。垂直运动可以把较冷的水带到表面，这个过程称为上升流，使上面的空气冷却下来。

Hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere.[4] Plants evapotranspirate and sunlight evaporates water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind salt and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface.模板:Sfn Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall.模板:Sfn The evaporation of water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This latent heat is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere.模板:Sfn

The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere. Plants evapotranspirate and sunlight evaporates water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind salt and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall. The evaporation of water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This latent heat is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere.

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =.植物蒸发蒸腾，阳光蒸发海洋和其他水体的水，留下盐和其他矿物质。蒸发的淡水后来又降回到地表。降水和蒸发在全球的分布并不均匀，有些地区，如热带地区的降雨量多于蒸发量，而另一些地区的蒸发量多于降雨量。水的蒸发需要大量的能量，而大量的热量在冷凝过程中释放出来。这种潜热是大气中能量的主要来源。

Biochemical cycles

Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.

Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The carbon cycle is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: 模板:CO2 and methane.模板:Sfn In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures.模板:Sfn As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release 模板:CO2 by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle.模板:Sfn As 模板:CO2 in the atmosphere makes rain a bit acidic, this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as weathering. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form sedimentary rocks, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.[5]

alt=|thumb|330x330px|Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere. Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The carbon cycle is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: and methane. In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle. As in the atmosphere makes rain a bit acidic, this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as weathering. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form sedimentary rocks, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.

生物化学循环 = = alt = | thumb | 330x330px | 碳不断地在气候系统的不同元素之间传输: 由生物固定，并通过海洋和大气传输。对生命至关重要的化学元素在气候系统的不同组成部分中不断循环。碳循环对气候直接重要，因为它决定了大气中两种重要的温室气体的浓度: 甲烷。在碳循环的快速阶段，植物通过光合作用从大气中吸收二氧化碳，这些二氧化碳随后通过生物的呼吸重新释放出来。作为缓慢碳循环的一部分，火山通过脱气释放，从地壳和地幔中释放出二氧化碳。由于大气中的降雨使得雨水呈酸性，这种降雨可以慢慢地溶解一些岩石，这个过程被称为风化。通过这种方式释放出来的矿物质，被运输到海里，被生物使用，这些生物的遗骸可以形成沉积岩，把碳带回岩石圈。

The nitrogen cycle describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric nitrogen is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called fixing nitrogen, before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere.模板:Sfn Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of fertilizers has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.模板:Sfn

The nitrogen cycle describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric nitrogen is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called fixing nitrogen, before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere. Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of fertilizers has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.

氮循环描述了活性氮的流动。由于大气中的氮是惰性的，微生物首先必须通过一种称为固氮的过程将其转化为活性氮化合物，然后才能将其用作生物圈的组成部分。人类活动在碳和氮循环中发挥着重要作用: 化石燃料的燃烧将碳从岩石圈转移到大气中，而肥料的使用极大地增加了可用的固定氮的数量。

Changes within the climate system

Main article: Climate change

Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth.模板:Sfn Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called internal climate variability. The system can also experience external forcing from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit).模板:Sfn Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as climate changes,[6] although this phrase usually refers to the current global climate change.[7] When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of climate feedbacks (e.g. albedo changes), producing many different effects (e.g. sea level rise).模板:Sfn


Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth. Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called internal climate variability. The system can also experience external forcing from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit). Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as climate changes, although this phrase usually refers to the current global climate change. When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of climate feedbacks (e.g. albedo changes), producing many different effects (e.g. sea level rise).

= = 气候系统内部的变化 = = 气候是不断变化的，时间尺度从季节到地球的生命周期不等。由系统自身组成部分和动态引起的变化称为内部气候变异性。系统也可以经历来自系统外部现象的外部强迫(例如:。地球轨道的变化)。更长的变化，通常定义为持续至少30年的变化，被称为气候变化，尽管这个短语通常指的是当前的全球气候变化。当气候变化时，这些影响可能会相互作用，通过一系列气候反馈通过系统的其他部分(例如:。反照率变化) ，产生许多不同的效果(例如:。海平面上升)。

Internal variability

Difference between normal December sea surface temperature [°C] and temperatures during the strong El Niño of 1997. El Niño typically brings wetter weather to Mexico and the United States.[8]

Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese Azores typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over Iceland.[9] The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central Eurasia.模板:Sfn For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO.模板:Sfn Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.模板:Sfn


Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese Azores typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over Iceland. The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central Eurasia. For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO. Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.

= = = = 内部变率 = = = = 气候系统的组成部分不断变化，即使没有外部推动(外部强迫)。大气层中的一个例子是北大西洋振盪，它作为一种大气压力运作。葡萄牙亚速尔群岛的气压通常较高，而冰岛上空的气压通常较低。气压的差异会产生振荡，从而影响北大西洋地区到欧亚大陆中部的气候模式。例如，格陵兰岛和加拿大的天气在北大西洋涛动期间是寒冷和干燥的。北大西洋振盪的不同阶段可以持续数十年。

The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time.模板:Sfn模板:Sfn Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere;模板:Sfn模板:Sfn but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.模板:Sfn模板:Sfn

The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere; but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.

海洋和大气层也可以共同作用，自发地产生内部气候变化，这种变化可以持续数年甚至数十年。这种变化的例子包括厄尔尼诺-南方涛动、太平洋十年涛动和大西洋数十年涛动。这些变化可以通过在深海和大气之间重新分配热量来影响全球平均表面温度，但也可以通过改变云、水蒸气或海冰的分布来影响地球的总能量收支。

The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the atmosphere, and therefore very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to attribute recent climate change to greenhouse gases.模板:Sfn

The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the atmosphere, and therefore very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to attribute recent climate change to greenhouse gases.

由于海洋的质量是大气的数百倍，因此具有很高的热惯性，这些振荡的海洋方面可以产生百年时间尺度的变化。例如，像温盐环流这样的海洋过程的改变在重新分配世界海洋的热量方面起着关键作用。了解内部变化有助于科学家将近期的气候变化归因于温室气体。

External climate forcing

On long timescales, the climate is determined mostly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing, and when the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the climate system, it is called an external forcing.模板:Sfn Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. Off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components, as are human actions.模板:Sfn

On long timescales, the climate is determined mostly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing, and when the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the climate system, it is called an external forcing. Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. Off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components, as are human actions.

在很长的时间尺度上，气候主要取决于系统中有多少能量以及能量流向何处。当地球的能量收支发生变化时，气候也随之改变。能量收支的变化被称为强迫力，当这种变化是由气候系统的五个组成部分之外的某种东西引起时，这种变化被称为外部强迫力。例如，火山是由于地球内部的深层过程，而这些过程并不被认为是气候系统的一部分。行星以外的变化，如太阳变化和小行星的到来，也是“外部”的气候系统的五个组成部分，因为是人类的行动。

The main value to quantify and compare climate forcings is radiative forcing.

The main value to quantify and compare climate forcings is radiative forcing.

量化和比较气候影响的主要数据是辐射效应。

Incoming sunlight

The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation.模板:Sfn The amount of energy coming from the Sun varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle模板:Sfn and longer-term time scales.模板:Sfn While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the stratosphere, which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface.模板:Sfn

The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation. The amount of energy coming from the Sun varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term time scales. While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the stratosphere, which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface.

太阳是地球能量输入的主要来源，并驱动大气环流。来自太阳的能量在较短的时间尺度上变化，包括11年的太阳周期和较长的时间尺度。虽然太阳活动周期太小，不足以直接使地球表面变暖和变冷，但它确实直接影响到大气层的较高层---- 平流层，这可能对地球表面附近的大气层产生影响。

Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of kinematic change are variations in Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession of Earth's axis. Together these produce Milankovitch cycles, which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.[10]

Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of kinematic change are variations in Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession of Earth's axis. Together these produce Milankovitch cycles, which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.

地球运动的细微变化可能会导致到达地球表面的阳光的季节分布以及它在全球的分布情况发生巨大变化，尽管不会影响到全球和年平均阳光。这三种类型的运动学变化是地球偏心率的变化、地球自转轴倾斜角的变化和地球轴进动。这些因素共同产生了米兰科维奇循环，影响了气候，并且与冰川期和间冰期有着显著的相关性。

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing longwave radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently, emissions by humans are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as 模板:CO2, methane and [[Nitrous oxide|模板:N2O]].模板:Sfn The dominant contributor to the greenhouse effect is water vapour (~50%), with clouds (~25%) and [[Carbon dioxide|模板:CO2]] (~20%) also playing an important role. When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as 模板:CO2 are increased and temperature rises, the amount of water vapour increases as well, so that water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings, but instead as feedbacks.模板:Sfn Rock weathering is a very slow process that removes carbon from the atmosphere.模板:Sfn

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing longwave radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently, emissions by humans are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as , methane and . The dominant contributor to the greenhouse effect is water vapour (~50%), with clouds (~25%) and (~20%) also playing an important role. When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as are increased and temperature rises, the amount of water vapour increases as well, so that water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings, but instead as feedbacks. Rock weathering is a very slow process that removes carbon from the atmosphere.

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =.在地球的过去，许多过程导致了温室气体浓度的变化。目前，人类的排放是某些温室气体浓度增加的原因，例如甲烷和甲烷。温室效应的主要贡献者是水蒸气(约50%) ，云(约25%)和(约20%)也起着重要作用。当长期存在的温室气体(如温度升高)的浓度增加时，水蒸气的数量也会增加，因此水蒸气和云层不被视为外部影响，而是作为反馈。岩石风化是一个非常缓慢的过程，从大气中移除碳。

Aerosols

Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named aerosols, have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere.模板:Sfn Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei, stimulating cloud formation.模板:Sfn Natural sources of aerosols include sea spray, mineral dust, meteorites and volcanoes, but humans also contribute模板:Sfn as human activity such as causing wildfires or combustion of fossil fuels releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract a part of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases, but only until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less.模板:Sfn

Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named aerosols, have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere. Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei, stimulating cloud formation. Natural sources of aerosols include sea spray, mineral dust, meteorites and volcanoes, but humans also contribute as human activity such as causing wildfires or combustion of fossil fuels releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract a part of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases, but only until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less.

大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接影响包括气溶胶可以充当云凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的自然来源包括海浪、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消温室气体排放造成的一部分变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短时间内回落到地面。

In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by MSU NASA satellites, effects appear from aerosols released by major volcanic eruptions (El Chichón and Pinatubo). El Niño is a separate event, from ocean variability.

Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent.模板:Sfn On average, there are only several volcanic eruptions per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting tons of SO2 into the stratosphere.模板:Sfn模板:Sfn The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.模板:Sfn


Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent. On average, there are only several volcanic eruptions per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting tons of SO2 into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.

虽然从技术上讲，火山是岩石圈的一部分，岩石圈本身也是气候系统的一部分，但火山作用被定义为外部强迫因素。平均而言，每个世纪只有几次火山爆发，通过向平流层喷发大量的二氧化硫，影响地球气候超过一年。二氧化硫通过化学方法转化为气溶胶，阻挡一部分阳光照射到地球表面，从而导致气候变冷。小规模的火山喷发对大气层的影响很微妙。

Land use and cover change

Changes in land cover, such as change of water cover (e.g. rising sea level, drying up of lakes and outburst floods) or deforestation, particularly through human use of the land, can affect the climate. The reflectivity of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so that precipitation is also affected.模板:Sfn Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release black carbon, which darkens snow making it easier to melt.模板:Sfn模板:Sfn

Changes in land cover, such as change of water cover (e.g. rising sea level, drying up of lakes and outburst floods) or deforestation, particularly through human use of the land, can affect the climate. The reflectivity of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so that precipitation is also affected. Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release black carbon, which darkens snow making it easier to melt.

= = = = 土地利用和覆盖变化 = = = 土地覆盖变化，例如水覆盖变化。海平面上升、湖泊干涸和洪水爆发)或森林砍伐，特别是人类对土地的使用，都会影响气候。该区域的反射率可能发生变化，导致该区域获得的阳光多少有所减少。此外，植被与水文循环相互作用，因此降水也受到影响。地表火灾释放的温室气体进入大气层，释放出黑碳，使雪变黑，更容易融化。

Responses and feedbacks

The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium.模板:Sfn

The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium.

= = = 反应和反馈 = = = 气候系统的不同要素对外部强迫作出不同的反应。这些成分之间的一个重要区别是它们对外力作出反应的速度。大气层通常会在几个小时到几个星期内作出反应，而深海和冰原则需要几个世纪到几千年才能达到新的平衡。

The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher albedo or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further.模板:Sfn

The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher albedo or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further.

组分对外部强迫的初始响应可以通过负反馈抑制，也可以通过正反馈增强。例如，太阳强度的显著降低将迅速导致地球温度下降，从而使冰雪覆盖面积扩大。额外的冰雪具有更高的反照率或反射率，因此在被整个气候系统吸收之前，会将更多的太阳辐射反射回太空; 这反过来又会导致地球进一步降温。

Notes and Sources

Notes and Sources

笔记和资料来源 =

Notes

  1. ↑ "Climate systems". climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2019-05-06. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  2. ↑ "Earth's climate system". World Ocean Review (in English). Retrieved 2019-10-13.
  3. ↑ Barry & Hall-McKim 2014, p. 22; Goosse 2015, section 1.2.1.
  4. ↑ "The water cycle". Met Office (in English). Retrieved 2019-10-14.
  5. ↑ Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011). "The Carbon Cycle". Earth Observatory. NASA.
  6. ↑ Australian Academy of Science (2015). "1. What is climate change?". www.science.org.au. The science of climate change - Questions and Answers. Retrieved 2019-10-20.
  7. ↑ National Geographic (2019-03-28). "Climate Change". Retrieved 2019-10-20.
  8. ↑ Carlowicz, Mike; Uz, Stephanie Schollaert (14 February 2017). "El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather". Earth Observatory. NASA.
  9. ↑ "North Atlantic Oscillation". Met Office (in English). Retrieved 2019-10-03.
  10. ↑ "Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation". University of Montana. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2 April 2009.

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模板:Global warming

Category:Earth sciences Category:Climate variability and change

类别: 地球科学类别: 气候变异性和变化


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