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For the album by Off Minor, see The Heat Death of the Universe.

模板:Physical cosmology


The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze,[1] is a conjecture on the ultimate fate of the universe, which suggests the universe would evolve to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase entropy. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work. In the language of physics, this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy).

The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze, is a conjecture on the ultimate fate of the universe, which suggests the universe would evolve to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase entropy. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work. In the language of physics, this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy).

宇宙的热死亡，也被称为大寒或大冻结，是对宇宙最终命运的猜测，这表明宇宙将进化到没有热力学自由能的状态，因此将无法维持增加熵的过程。热死并不意味着任何特定的绝对温度; 它只是要求温差或其他过程可能不再利用进行工作。用物理学的语言来说，这是宇宙达到最大熵的热力学平衡。


If the topology of the universe is open or flat, or if dark energy is a positive cosmological constant (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur,引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.

}}</ref> with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.

宇宙冷却到一个非常低的温度，在一个非常长的时间周期后达到平衡。


The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (Lord Kelvin), who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature (as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.

The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (Lord Kelvin), who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature (as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.

热死的假说来源于威廉 · 汤姆森，第一个凯尔文男爵(开尔文勋爵) ，他在19世纪50年代将热理论视为自然界中的机械能损失(正如前两个热力学定律所体现的那样) ，并将其外推到宇宙尺度上的更大过程。


Origins of the idea

The idea of heat death stems from the second law of thermodynamics, of which one version states that entropy tends to increase in an isolated system. From this, the hypothesis implies that if the universe lasts for a sufficient time, it will asymptotically approach a state where all energy is evenly distributed. In other words, according to this hypothesis, there is a tendency in nature to the dissipation (energy transformation) of mechanical energy (motion) into thermal energy; hence, by extrapolation, there exists the view that, in time, the mechanical movement of the universe will run down as work is converted to heat because of the second law.

The idea of heat death stems from the second law of thermodynamics, of which one version states that entropy tends to increase in an isolated system. From this, the hypothesis implies that if the universe lasts for a sufficient time, it will asymptotically approach a state where all energy is evenly distributed. In other words, according to this hypothesis, there is a tendency in nature to the dissipation (energy transformation) of mechanical energy (motion) into thermal energy; hence, by extrapolation, there exists the view that, in time, the mechanical movement of the universe will run down as work is converted to heat because of the second law.

热死的概念来源于热力学第二定律，其中一种说法认为，在一个孤立的系统中，熵倾向于增加。由此，该假设暗示，如果宇宙持续足够长的时间，它将渐近地接近所有能量均匀分布的状态。换句话说，根据这一假设，在自然界中存在着将机械能(运动)耗散(能量转换)为热能的趋势; 因此，通过外推，存在着这样一种观点，即随着时间的推移，宇宙的机械运动将减少，因为根据第二定律，功转换为热。


The conjecture that all bodies in the universe cool off, eventually becoming too cold to support life, seems to have been first put forward by the French astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly in 1777 in his writings on the history of astronomy and in the ensuing correspondence with Voltaire. In Bailly's view, all planets have an internal heat and are now at some particular stage of cooling. Jupiter, for instance, is still too hot for life to arise there for thousands of years, while the Moon is already too cold. The final state, in this view, is described as one of "equilibrium" in which all motion ceases.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

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The idea of heat death as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics, however, was first proposed in loose terms beginning in 1851 by William Thomson, who theorized further on the mechanical energy loss views of Sadi Carnot (1824), James Joule (1843), and Rudolf Clausius (1850). Thomson's views were then elaborated on more definitively over the next decade by Hermann von Helmholtz and William Rankine.[citation needed]

The idea of heat death as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics, however, was first proposed in loose terms beginning in 1851 by William Thomson, who theorized further on the mechanical energy loss views of Sadi Carnot (1824), James Joule (1843), and Rudolf Clausius (1850). Thomson's views were then elaborated on more definitively over the next decade by Hermann von Helmholtz and William Rankine.

然而，热死作为热力学定律的后果的想法最早是在1851年由 William Thomson 以松散的术语提出的，他对 Sadi Carnot (1824) ，James Joule (1843)和 Rudolf Clausius (1850)的机械能损失观点进行了进一步的理论化。在接下来的十年里，赫尔曼·冯·亥姆霍兹和威廉 · 兰金对汤姆森的观点进行了更加明确的阐述。


History

The idea of heat death of the universe derives from discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat: "heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect."[2]

The idea of heat death of the universe derives from discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat: "heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect."

宇宙热死的概念来源于前两个热力学定律对宇宙过程的应用的讨论。具体地说，在1851年，威廉 · 汤姆森根据最近关于热力学理论的实验概述了这一观点: “热不是一种物质，而是一种机械效应的动力形式，我们认为，在因果关系中，机械功和热之间一定存在等价关系。”

Lord Kelvin originated the idea of universal heat death in 1852.

Lord Kelvin originated the idea of universal heat death in 1852.]]

开尔文爵士在1852年提出了宇宙热死的概念


In 1852, Thomson published On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy, in which he outlined the rudiments of the second law of thermodynamics summarized by the view that mechanical motion and the energy used to create that motion will naturally tend to dissipate or run down.[3] The ideas in this paper, in relation to their application to the age of the Sun and the dynamics of the universal operation, attracted the likes of William Rankine and Hermann von Helmholtz. The three of them were said to have exchanged ideas on this subject.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 In 1862, Thomson published "On the age of the Sun's heat", an article in which he reiterated his fundamental beliefs in the indestructibility of energy (the first law) and the universal dissipation of energy (the second law), leading to diffusion of heat, cessation of useful motion (work), and exhaustion of potential energy through the material universe, while clarifying his view of the consequences for the universe as a whole. Thomson wrote:

}}</ref> In 1862, Thomson published "On the age of the Sun's heat", an article in which he reiterated his fundamental beliefs in the indestructibility of energy (the first law) and the universal dissipation of energy (the second law), leading to diffusion of heat, cessation of useful motion (work), and exhaustion of potential energy through the material universe, while clarifying his view of the consequences for the universe as a whole. Thomson wrote:

【参考译文】1862年，汤姆森发表了《论太阳热量的年龄》 ，在这篇文章中，他重申了他的基本信念，即能量不可毁灭(第一定律)和能量的普遍耗散(第二定律) ，导致热量的扩散，有用运动(功)的停止，以及通过物质宇宙的势能耗尽，同时澄清了他对整个宇宙的结果的看法。汤姆森写道:


The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to an endless progress, through an endless space, of action involving the transformation of potential energy into palpable motion and hence into heat, than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping for ever.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

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In the years to follow both Thomson's 1852 and the 1865 papers, Helmholtz and Rankine both credited Thomson with the idea, but read further into his papers by publishing views stating that Thomson argued that the universe will end in a "heat death" (Helmholtz) which will be the "end of all physical phenomena" (Rankine).[4]引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签模板:Unreliable source?

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Current status

See also: Entropy § Cosmology, and Entropy (arrow of time) § Cosmology

Proposals about the final state of the universe depend on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century. In a hypothesized "open" or "flat" universe that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a Big Rip is expected to eventually occur.[5] If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

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If a Big Rip does not happen long before that, the "heat death" situation could be avoided if there is a method or mechanism to regenerate hydrogen atoms from radiation, dark matter, dark energy, zero-point energy, or other sources. If so, it is at least possible that star formation and heat transfer can continue, avoiding a gradual running down of the universe due to the conversion of matter into energy and heavier elements in stellar processes, and the absorption of matter by black holes and their subsequent evaporation as Hawking radiation.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[6][7]

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Time frame for heat death

Main article: Future of an expanding universe


From the Big Bang through the present day, matter and dark matter in the universe are thought to have been concentrated in stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters, and are presumed to continue to be so well into the future. Therefore, the universe is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, and objects can do physical work.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签, §VID. The decay time for a supermassive black hole of roughly 1 galaxy mass (1011 solar masses) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10100 years,[8], §VID. The decay time for a supermassive black hole of roughly 1 galaxy mass (1011 solar masses) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10100 years,[8] so entropy can be produced until at least that time. Some large black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 1014 模板:Solar mass during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10106 years.[9] so entropy can be produced until at least that time. Some large black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 1014 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10106 years.[10] After that time, the universe enters the so-called Dark Era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons.[11]§VIA With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.[11], §VE. It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.[11], §VID. Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly [math]\displaystyle{ 10^{10^{10^{56}}} }[/math] years.[12] After that time, the universe enters the so-called Dark Era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons.§VIA With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state., §VE. It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death., §VID. Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly [math]\displaystyle{ 10^{10^{10^{56}}} }[/math] years.[13] Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy decrease would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem,[citation needed] thermal fluctuations,引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未填name属性的引用必须填写内容 Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy decrease would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations,[14][15][16][17][18] and fluctuation theorem.[19] and fluctuation theorem.[20][21][22] Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable".[23] Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable".[24] Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.[25] Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.[26][27][28]

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Controversies

Max Planck wrote that the phrase "entropy of the universe" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[29][30] More recently, Walter Grandy writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence."[31] More recently, Walter Grandy writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence."[32] According to Tisza: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it."[33] According to Tisza: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it."[34] Buchdahl writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system".[35] Buchdahl writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system".[36] According to Gallavotti: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state."[37] According to Gallavotti: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state."[38] Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way."[39] Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way."[40] In Landsberg's opinion: "The third misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book."[41] In Landsberg's opinion: "The third misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book."[42]

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A 2010 analysis of entropy states, "The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known", and, "gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the observable universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 Lee Smolin goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems."[43] Lee Smolin goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems."[44]

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This point of view is also supported by the fact of a recent experimental discovery of a stable non-equilibrium steady state in a relatively simple closed system. It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[45][46]

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See also


References

  1. ↑ WMAP – Fate of the Universe, WMAP's Universe, NASA. Accessed online July 17, 2008.
  2. ↑ Thomson, Sir William. (1851). "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule’s equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault’s Observations on Steam" Excerpts. [§§1–14 & §§99–100], Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March 1851, and Philosophical Magazine IV, 1852. [from Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. i, art. XLVIII, pp. 174]
  3. ↑ Thomson, Sir William (1852). "On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy" Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 19 April 1852, also Philosophical Magazine, Oct. 1852. [This version from Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. i, art. 59, pp. 511.]
  4. ↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Energy and Empire的引用提供文字
  5. ↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为DftS的引用提供文字
  6. ↑ }}
  7. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Macmillan | last = Macmillan 最后一个麦克米伦 | first = William D. | first = William D. 首先是威廉 d。 | author-link = William Duncan MacMillan | author-link = William Duncan MacMillan 威廉 · 邓肯 · 麦克米伦 | date = 31 July 1925 | date = 31 July 1925 日期: 1925年7月31日 | title = Some Mathematical Aspects of Cosmology | title = Some Mathematical Aspects of Cosmology 宇宙学的一些数学方面 | journal = Science | journal = Science 科学》杂志 | volume = 62 | volume = 62 第62卷 | issue = 1596 | issue = 1596 第1596期 | pages = 96–9 | pages = 96–9 第96-9页 | bibcode = 1925Sci....62..121M | bibcode = 1925Sci....62..121M 1925 / sci... 62. . 121 m | doi = 10.1126/science.62.1596.96 | doi = 10.1126/science.62.1596.96 10.1126 / science. 62.1596.96 | pmid = 17752724 | pmid = 17752724 17752724 }}
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 }} 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；name属性“page”使用不同内容定义了多次
  9. ↑ }}
  10. ↑ } / ref，因此熵可以产生，直到至少那个时间。据预测，在超星系团坍缩期间，宇宙中的一些大型黑洞可能会继续增长到10个以上。即使这些也会在最多10 / 106 / 100年的时间内蒸发 {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Frautschi | last = Frautschi 最后一个 Frautschi | first = Steven | first = Steven 首先是史蒂文 | date = 13 August 1982 | date = 13 August 1982 1982年8月13日 | title = Entropy in an Expanding Universe | title = Entropy in an Expanding Universe 正在膨胀的宇宙中的熵 | url = http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/Frautschi_Science_1982.pdf | url = http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/Frautschi_Science_1982.pdf Http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/frautschi_science_1982.pdf | journal = Science | journal = Science 科学》杂志 | volume = 217 | volume = 217 第217卷 | issue = 4560 | issue = 4560 第4560期 | pages = 593–9 | pages = 593–9 第593-9页 | jstor = 1688892 | jstor = 1688892 1688892 | quote = Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding—for instance, superclusters of galaxies—black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 1014模板:Solar mass ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10106 years for black holes of up to 1014模板:Solar mass | quote = Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding—for instance, superclusters of galaxies—black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 1014 ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10106 years for black holes of up to 1014 | quote 自从我们假设了一个引力结合的最大尺度以来ー例如，星系的超星系团ー黑洞的形成最终在我们的模型中结束，质量高达10倍14倍... 黑洞辐射出它们所有能量范围的时间尺度... 至高达10倍106倍14倍的黑洞 | bibcode = 1982Sci...217..593F | bibcode = 1982Sci...217..593F 1982Sci... 217. . 593 f | doi = 10.1126/science.217.4560.593 | doi = 10.1126/science.217.4560.593 10.1126 / science. 217.4560.593 | pmid = 17817517 | pmid = 17817517 17817517 }}
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为A dying universe的引用提供文字
  12. ↑ }}
  13. ↑ 在那之后，宇宙进入了所谓的黑暗时期，预计主要由光子和轻子组成的稀薄气体组成。 由于只剩下非常分散的物质，宇宙中的活动将急剧减弱，能量水平极低，时间尺度极长。推测一下，宇宙可能会进入第二个暴胀时期，或者假设当前的真空状态是假真空，真空可能会衰变为低能状态。 你好，VE。 还有一种可能是，产生熵将停止，宇宙将进入热死状态。 你好，VID。 / sup 另一个宇宙可能是由随机的量子涨落或量子穿隧效应在大约10 ^ {10 ^ {56}} / 数学年中产生的。 裁判 {{Cite arXiv {{Cite arXiv Carroll 卡罗尔, Sean M. 首先，肖恩 · m。; Chen, Jennifer (October 2004 2004年10月). "Spontaneous Inflation and Origin of the Arrow of Time 自发性通货膨胀与时间之箭的起源". arXiv:[//arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0410270 Hep-th / 0410270 hep-th/0410270 Hep-th / 0410270]. {{cite arxiv}}: |arxiv= required (help); Check |arxiv= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Text "first2 Jennifer" ignored (help); Text "最后2陈" ignored (help); line feed character in |date= at position 13 (help); line feed character in |eprint= at position 15 (help); line feed character in |first1= at position 8 (help); line feed character in |last1= at position 8 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)模板:Bibcode }} }}
  14. ↑ / ref 在大量的时间里，自发的熵减少最终会通过庞加莱始态复现定理，热涨落，参考 {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | last = Tegmark | last = Tegmark 最后的 Tegmark | first = Max | first = Max 第一个 Max | author-link = Max Tegmark | author-link = Max Tegmark | 作者链接 Max Tegmark | title = Parallel Universes | title = Parallel Universes | 标题: 平行宇宙 | journal = Scientific American | journal = Scientific American 科学美国人》杂志 | volume = 288 | volume = 288 第288卷 | issue = 2003 | issue = 2003 2003年发行 | pages = 40–51 | pages = 40–51 第40-51页 | year = 2003 | year = 2003 2003年 | bibcode = 2003SciAm.288e..40T | bibcode = 2003SciAm.288e..40T | bibcode 2003 / sciam. 288 e. . 40 t | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40 10.1038 / scientificamerican0503-40 | pmid = 12701329 | pmid = 12701329 12701329 }}
  15. ↑ }}
  16. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Tegmark | last = Tegmark 最后的 Tegmark | first = Max | first = Max 第一个 Max | date = May 2003 | date = May 2003 2003年5月 | author-link = Max Tegmark | author-link = Max Tegmark | 作者链接 Max Tegmark | title = Parallel Universes | title = Parallel Universes | 标题: 平行宇宙 | journal = Scientific American | journal = Scientific American 科学美国人》杂志 | volume = 288 | volume = 288 第288卷 | issue = 5 | issue = 5 第五期 | pages = 40–51 | pages = 40–51 第40-51页 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | arxiv = astro-ph/0302131 | bibcode = 2003SciAm.288e..40T | bibcode = 2003SciAm.288e..40T | bibcode 2003 / sciam. 288 e. . 40 t | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40 10.1038 / scientificamerican0503-40 | pmid = 12701329 | pmid = 12701329 12701329 }}
  17. ↑ }}
  18. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last1 = Werlang | last1 = Werlang | last 1 Werlang | first1 = T. | first1 = T. 首先1 t。 | last2 = Ribeiro | last2 = Ribeiro 2 Ribeiro | first2 = G. A. P. | first2 = G. A. P. | 首先2 g a p。 | last3 = Rigolin | last3 = Rigolin | last 3 Rigolin | first3 = Gustavo | first3 = Gustavo | first3 Gustavo | year = 2013 | year = 2013 2013年 | title = Interplay between quantum phase transitions and the behavior of quantum correlations at finite temperatures.org | title = Interplay between quantum phase transitions and the behavior of quantum correlations at finite temperatures.org 有限 temperatures.org 中量子相变和量子关联行为之间的相互作用 | journal = International Journal of Modern Physics B | journal = International Journal of Modern Physics B 国际现代物理学杂志 | volume = 27 | volume = 27 第27卷 | issue = 1n03 | issue = 1n03 第1n03期 | pages = 1345032 | pages = 1345032 1345032页 | arxiv = 1205.1046 | arxiv = 1205.1046 1205.1046 | bibcode = 2013IJMPB..2745032W | bibcode = 2013IJMPB..2745032W 2013IJMPB. . 2745032 w | doi = 10.1142/S021797921345032X | doi = 10.1142/S021797921345032X 10.1142 / S021797921345032X }}
  19. ↑ }}
  20. ↑ } / ref 和涨落定理 {{Cite arxiv {{Cite arxiv Xiu-San Xing 作者: Xiu-San Xing (1 November 2007 2007年11月1日). "Spontaneous entropy decrease and its statistical formula 自发熵减少及其统计公式". arXiv:[//arxiv.org/abs/0710.4624 0710.4624 0710.4624 0710.4624] [[//arxiv.org/archive/cond-mat.stat-mech 上课时间到，快点 cond-mat.stat-mech 上课时间到，快点]]. {{cite arxiv}}: |arxiv= required (help); Check |arxiv= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); line feed character in |author= at position 13 (help); line feed character in |class= at position 19 (help); line feed character in |date= at position 16 (help); line feed character in |eprint= at position 10 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 57 (help)
  21. ↑ }}
  22. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Linde | last = Linde 最后的林德 | first = Andrei | first = Andrei | first = Andrei | year = 2007 | year = 2007 2007年 | title = Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant problem | title = Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant problem 沉没在风景中，玻尔兹曼的大脑和宇宙学常数问题 | journal = Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics | journal = Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 宇宙学和天体粒子物理学学杂志 | volume = 2007 | volume = 2007 2007年 | issue = 1 | issue = 1 第一期 | pages = 022 | pages = 022 第022页 | arxiv = hep-th/0611043 | arxiv = hep-th/0611043 第四肝脏 / 0611043 | bibcode = 2007JCAP...01..022L | bibcode = 2007JCAP...01..022L 2007JCAP... 01. . 022 l | doi = 10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022 | doi = 10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022 10.1088 / 1475-7516 / 2007 / 01 / 022 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.266.8334 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.266.8334 10.1.1.266.8334 }}
  23. ↑ }}
  24. ↑ } / ref 然而，这样的场景被描述为“高度投机的，可能是错误的，并且完全不可测试” {{Cite web {{Cite web {引用网页 |url = https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157 |url = https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157 Https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157 |title = The fate of the universe: heat death, Big Rip or cosmic consciousness? |title = The fate of the universe: heat death, Big Rip or cosmic consciousness? 宇宙的命运: 热死、大撕裂还是宇宙意识？ |last = Pimbblet |last = Pimbblet 最后一个 Pimbblet |first = Kevin |first = Kevin 先是凯文 |date = 3 September 2015 |date = 3 September 2015 2015年9月3日 |website = The Conversation |website = The Conversation 网站 The Conversation }}
  25. ↑ }}
  26. ↑ } / ref 肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔(Sean m. Carroll) ，本来是这个想法的拥护者，现在不再支持它了 {{Cite video {{Cite video {引用视频 |last = Carroll |last = Carroll 最后的卡罗尔 |first = Sean |first = Sean 先是肖恩 |title = Sean Carroll, "Fluctuations in de Sitter Space" FQXi conference 2014 in Vieques |title = Sean Carroll, "Fluctuations in de Sitter Space" FQXi conference 2014 in Vieques 肖恩 · 卡罗尔，“德西特空间的波动”2014年在 Vieques 举行的 FQXi 会议 |date = 27 January 2014 |date = 27 January 2014 2014年1月27日 |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeDUU7HM |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeDUU7HM Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeduu7hm |publisher = FQXi |publisher = FQXi 出版商 FQXi |author-link = Sean M. Carroll |author-link = Sean M. Carroll 肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔 }}
  27. ↑ }}
  28. ↑ } / ref ref {{cite arxiv {{cite arxiv Boddy, Kimberly K.; Carroll, Sean M. 2 Carroll; Pollack, Jason 3 Jason (2014 2014年). "De Sitter Space Without Dynamical Quantum Fluctuations 没有动力学量子涨落的德西特空间". arXiv:[//arxiv.org/abs/1405.0298 1405.0298 1405.0298 1405.0298] [[//arxiv.org/archive/hep-th 我会去上课的 hep-th 我会去上课的]]. {{cite arxiv}}: |arxiv= required (help); Check |arxiv= value (help); Check date values in: |year= (help); Text "first2 Sean m." ignored (help); Text "最后一个博迪" ignored (help); Text "第一个金伯莉 k。" ignored (help); line feed character in |class= at position 7 (help); line feed character in |eprint= at position 10 (help); line feed character in |first2= at position 8 (help); line feed character in |first3= at position 6 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 55 (help); line feed character in |year= at position 5 (help)
  29. ↑ }}
  30. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | url = https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up | url = https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up Https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up | title = Treatise on Thermodynamics | title = Treatise on Thermodynamics 热力学论文 | last = Planck | last = Planck 最后一个普朗克 | first = Max | first = Max 第一个 Max | year = 1903 | year = 1903 1903年 | pages = 101 | pages = 101 第101页 | translator-last = Ogg | translator-last = Ogg | translator-last Ogg | translator-first = Alexander | translator-first = Alexander 第一个亚历山大 | author-link = Max Planck | author-link = Max Planck 马克斯 · 普朗克 | publisher = London : Longmans, Green | publisher = London : Longmans, Green 伦敦出版社: Longmans，Green }}
  31. ↑ }}
  32. ↑ 更近一些时候，Walter Grandy 写道: “我们仍然对宇宙的熵知之甚少，我们想知道如何定义一个宇宙及其主要成分的熵，这些成分在其整个存在过程中从未处于平衡状态。裁判 {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems | title = Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems 熵与宏观系统的时间演化 | last = Grandy | last = Grandy | last Grandy | first = Walter T., Jr. | first = Walter T., Jr. 首先是小沃尔特 · t。 | publisher = Oxford University Press | publisher = Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社 | year = 2008 | year = 2008 2008年 | isbn = 978-0-19-954617-6 | isbn = 978-0-19-954617-6 [国际标准图书馆编号978-0-19-954617-6] | page = 151 | page = 151 第151页 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=SnMF37J50DgC | url = https://books.google.com/?id=SnMF37J50DgC Https://books.google.com/?id=snmf37j50dgc }}
  33. ↑ }}
  34. ↑ } / ref 根据 Tisza 的说法: “如果一个孤立的系统不处于平衡状态，我们就不能把熵和它联系起来。裁判 {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = Generalized Thermodynamics | title = Generalized Thermodynamics 广义热力学 | last = Tisza | last = Tisza 最后一个 Tisza | first = László | first = László | first = László | author-link = László Tisza | author-link = László Tisza | author-link = László Tisza | publisher = MIT Press | publisher = MIT Press 出版商: 麻省理工出版社 | year = 1966 | year = 1966 1966年 | isbn = 978-0-262-20010-3 | isbn = 978-0-262-20010-3 [国际标准图书编号978-0-262-20010-3] | pages = 41 | pages = 41 第41页 }}
  35. ↑ }}
  36. ↑ } / ref Buchdahl 写道: “宇宙可以被视为一个封闭的热力学系统，这是完全不合理的假设。” {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics | title = The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics 经典热力学的概念 | last = Buchdahl | last = Buchdahl 最后一瓶布赫达 | first = H. A. | first = H. A. 首先是 h. a。 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | publisher = Cambridge University Press 剑桥大学出版社 | year = 1966 | year = 1966 1966年 | isbn = 978-0-521-11519-3 | isbn = 978-0-521-11519-3 [国际标准图书编号978-0-521-11519-3] | pages = 97 | pages = 97 第97页 | author-link = Hans Adolf Buchdahl | author-link = Hans Adolf Buchdahl 作者: Hans Adolf Buchdahl }}
  37. ↑ }}
  38. ↑ } / ref 根据 Gallavotti 的说法: “对于失去平衡的系统，没有普遍接受的熵的概念，即使是在定态中。裁判 {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = Statistical Mechanics: A Short Treatise | title = Statistical Mechanics: A Short Treatise 统计力学: 一篇简短的论文 | last = Gallavotti | last = Gallavotti 最后一个 Gallavotti | first = Giovanni | first = Giovanni 首先是乔瓦尼 | publisher = Springer | publisher = Springer 出版商斯普林格 | year = 1999 | year = 1999 1999年 | isbn = 978-3-540-64883-3 | isbn = 978-3-540-64883-3 [国际标准图书馆编号978-3-540-64883-3] | page = 290 | page = 290 290页 | author-link = Giovanni Gallavotti | author-link = Giovanni Gallavotti 作者: 乔瓦尼 · 加拉沃蒂 }}
  39. ↑ }}
  40. ↑ 讨论了一般非平衡态的熵问题，Lieb 和 Yngvason 表达了他们的观点如下: “尽管大多数物理学家相信存在这种非平衡态熵，但迄今为止已经证明不可能以一种明显令人满意的方式来定义它。裁判 {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics) | title = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics) | 标题熵(普林斯顿应用数学系列) | last = Lieb | last = Lieb 最后里布 | first = Elliott H. | first = Elliott H. 首先是艾略特 h。 | author-link = Elliott H. Lieb | author-link = Elliott H. Lieb 作者链接 Elliott h. Lieb | last2 = Yngvason | last2 = Yngvason 2 Yngvason | first2 = Jakob | first2 = Jakob | first2 Jakob | author-link2 = Jakob Yngvason | author-link2 = Jakob Yngvason 2 Jakob Yngvason | publisher = Princeton University Press | publisher = Princeton University Press 出版商普林斯顿大学出版社 | year = 2003 | year = 2003 2003年 | isbn = 978-0-691-11338-8 | isbn = 978-0-691-11338-8 [国际标准图书编号978-0-691-11338-8] | editor-last = Greven | editor-last = Greven | 编辑-最后的格雷文 | editor-first = Andreas | editor-first = Andreas 编辑-第一安德里亚斯 | editor-last2 = Warnecke | editor-last2 = Warnecke 2 Warnecke | editor-first2 = Gerald | editor-first2 = Gerald 编辑第一2名 Gerald | editor-last3 = Keller | editor-last3 = Keller | 编辑-最后3个凯勒 | editor-first3 = Gerhard | editor-first3 = Gerhard | 编辑-first3格哈德 | page = 190 | page = 190 第190页 | chapter = The entropy of classical thermodynamics | chapter = The entropy of classical thermodynamics 经典热力学的熵 }}
  41. ↑ }}
  42. ↑ } / ref 在 Landsberg 的观点中: “第三个误解是热力学，特别是熵的概念，不需要进一步的探究就可以应用于整个宇宙。...这些问题有一定的魅力，但答案是推测，并在这本书的范围之外。裁判 {{Cite book {{Cite book {引用书 | title = Thermodynamics with Quantum Statistical Illustrations | title = Thermodynamics with Quantum Statistical Illustrations 量子统计图解热力学 | last = Landsberg | last = Landsberg 最后的兰兹伯格 | first = Peter Theodore | first = Peter Theodore 首先是彼得 · 西奥多 | publisher = Interscience Publishers | publisher = Interscience Publishers 出版商 Interscience Publishers | year = 1961 | year = 1961 1961年 | isbn = 978-0-470-51381-1 | isbn = 978-0-470-51381-1 [国际标准图书编号978-0-470-51381-1] | edition = First | edition = First 第一版 | pages = 391 | pages = 391 第391页 }}
  43. ↑ }}
  44. ↑ O < / o < o < / o < o < / o 李 · 斯莫林更进一步说: “人们早就知道，引力对于保持宇宙远离热平衡十分重要。引力束缚系统具有负的比热，也就是说，当能量消失时，其组分的速度增加。...这样的系统不会演化到均匀的平衡状态。相反，随着它分解成子系统，它变得越来越结构化和异构化。裁判 {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Smolin | last = Smolin 最后的斯莫林 | first = Lee | first = Lee 李先生 | author-link = Lee Smolin | author-link = Lee Smolin 作者: 李 · 斯莫林 | year = 2014 | year = 2014 2014年 | title = Time, laws, and future of cosmology | title = Time, laws, and future of cosmology 时间、定律和宇宙学的未来 | journal = Physics Today | journal = Physics Today | 今日物理杂志 | volume = 67 | volume = 67 第67卷 | issue = 3 | issue = 3 第三期 | pages = 38–43 [42] | pages = 38–43 [42] 第三十八至四十三页 | bibcode = 2014PhT....67c..38S | bibcode = 2014PhT....67c..38S | bibcode 2014PhT... 67c. . 38 s | doi = 10.1063/pt.3.2310 | doi = 10.1063/pt.3.2310 10.1063 / pt. 3.2310 }}
  45. ↑ }}
  46. ↑ } / ref ref {{Cite journal {{Cite journal {引用期刊 | last = Lemishko | last = Lemishko 最后的 Lemishko | first = Sergey S. | first = Sergey S. 谢尔盖 · s。 | last2 = Lemishko | last2 = Lemishko | 最后2个 Lemishko | first2 = Alexander S. | first2 = Alexander S. 第二名: 亚历山大 · s。 |title = Non-equilibrium steady state in closed system with reversible reactions: Mechanism, kinetics and its possible application for energy conversion |title = Non-equilibrium steady state in closed system with reversible reactions: Mechanism, kinetics and its possible application for energy conversion 具有可逆反应的封闭体系中的非平衡稳态: 能量转换的机理、动力学及其可能的应用 | journal = Results in Chemistry | journal = Results in Chemistry 化学研究结果 | publication-date = 8 February 2020 | publication-date = 8 February 2020 | 出版日期: 2020年2月8日 | volume = 2 | volume = 2 第二卷 | doi = 10.1016/j.rechem.2020.100031 | doi = 10.1016/j.rechem.2020.100031 10.1016 / j.rechem. 2020.100031 | year = 2020 | year = 2020 2020年 | pages = 100031 | pages = 100031 100031页 | doi-access= free | doi-access= free 免费访问 }}

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