# 图灵机

A Turing machine is a mathematical model of computation that defines an abstract machine that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a table of rules. Despite the model's simplicity, given any computer algorithm, a Turing machine capable of simulating that algorithm's logic can be constructed.

The machine operates on an infinite memory tape divided into discrete "cells". The machine positions its "head" over a cell and "reads" or "scans" the symbol there. Then, based on the symbol and the machine's own present state in a "finite table" of user-specified instructions, the machine (i) writes a symbol (e.g., a digit or a letter from a finite alphabet) in the cell (some models allow symbol erasure or no writing), then (ii) either moves the tape one cell left or right (some models allow no motion, some models move the head), then (iii) based on the observed symbol and the machine's own state in the table either proceeds to another instruction or halts the computation.

The Turing machine was invented in 1936 by Alan Turing, who called it an "a-machine" (automatic machine). With this model, Turing was able to answer two questions in the negative:

1. Does a machine exist that can determine whether any arbitrary machine on its tape is "circular" (e.g., freezes, or fails to continue its computational task)?
2. Does a machine exist that can determine whether any arbitrary machine on its tape ever prints a given symbol?

Thus by providing a mathematical description of a very simple device capable of arbitrary computations, he was able to prove properties of computation in general—and in particular, the uncomputability of the Entscheidungsproblem ('decision problem').

(1)是否存在一台机器，能够确定其纸带上的任意机器是否是“循环”的(例如，死机，或无法继续其计算任务) ?

(2)是否存在一种机器可以确定其纸带上的任何任意机器是否曾经打印出一个特定的符号？

Turing machines proved the existence of fundamental limitations on the power of mechanical computation. While they can express arbitrary computations, their minimalist design makes them unsuitable for computation in practice: real-world computers are based on different designs that, unlike Turing machines, use random-access memory.

Turing completeness is the ability for a system of instructions to simulate a Turing machine. A programming language that is Turing complete is theoretically capable of expressing all tasks accomplishable by computers; nearly all programming languages are Turing complete if the limitations of finite memory are ignored.

“图灵完备性（Turing completeness）”是一个指令系统模拟图灵机的能力。一个图灵完备的编程语言理论上能够表达所有计算机可以完成的任务; 如果忽略有限内存的限制，几乎所有的编程语言都是图灵完备的。

## 图灵机概述

A Turing machine is a general example of a central processing unit (CPU) that controls all data manipulation done by a computer, with the canonical machine using sequential memory to store data. More specifically, it is a machine (automaton) capable of enumerating some arbitrary subset of valid strings of an alphabet; these strings are part of a recursively enumerable set. A Turing machine has a tape of infinite length on which it can perform read and write operations.

Assuming a black box, the Turing machine cannot know whether it will eventually enumerate any one specific string of the subset with a given program. This is due to the fact that the halting problem is unsolvable, which has major implications for the theoretical limits of computing.

The Turing machine is capable of processing an unrestricted grammar, which further implies that it is capable of robustly evaluating first-order logic in an infinite number of ways. This is famously demonstrated through lambda calculus.

A Turing machine that is able to simulate any other Turing machine is called a universal Turing machine (UTM, or simply a universal machine). A more mathematically oriented definition with a similar "universal" nature was introduced by Alonzo Church, whose work on lambda calculus intertwined with Turing's in a formal theory of computation known as the Church–Turing thesis. The thesis states that Turing machines indeed capture the informal notion of effective methods in logic and mathematics, and provide a precise definition of an algorithm or "mechanical procedure". Studying their abstract properties yields many insights into computer science and complexity theory.

### 物理描述

In his 1948 essay, "Intelligent Machinery", Turing wrote that his machine consisted of:

...an unlimited memory capacity obtained in the form of an infinite tape marked out into squares, on each of which a symbol could be printed. At any moment there is one symbol in the machine; it is called the scanned symbol. The machine can alter the scanned symbol, and its behavior is in part determined by that symbol, but the symbols on the tape elsewhere do not affect the behavior of the machine. However, the tape can be moved back and forth through the machine, this being one of the elementary operations of the machine. Any symbol on the tape may therefore eventually have an innings. — Turing 1948, p. 3

...以无限长纸带的形式获得的无限存储容量，纸带上标有方块，每个方块上可以打印一个符号。在任何时候，机器中都有一个符号；它被称为扫描符号。机器可以改变扫描的符号，其行为部分由该符号决定，但纸带上其他地方的符号不会影响机器的行为。然而，纸带可以在机器中来回移动，这是机器的基本操作之一。因此，纸带上的任何符号最终都可能有一个局。

### 描述

The Turing machine mathematically models a machine that mechanically operates on a tape. On this tape are symbols, which the machine can read and write, one at a time, using a tape head. Operation is fully determined by a finite set of elementary instructions such as "in state 42, if the symbol seen is 0, write a 1; if the symbol seen is 1, change into state 17; in state 17, if the symbol seen is 0, write a 1 and change to state 6;" etc. In the original article ("On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", see also references below), Turing imagines not a mechanism, but a person whom he calls the "computer", who executes these deterministic mechanical rules slavishly (or as Turing puts it, "in a desultory manner").

More explicitly, a Turing machine consists of:

• A tape divided into cells, one next to the other. Each cell contains a symbol from some finite alphabet. The alphabet contains a special blank symbol (here written as '0') and one or more other symbols. The tape is assumed to be arbitrarily extendable to the left and to the right, so that the Turing machine is always supplied with as much tape as it needs for its computation. Cells that have not been written before are assumed to be filled with the blank symbol. In some models the tape has a left end marked with a special symbol; the tape extends or is indefinitely extensible to the right.
• 纸带。纸带被分成多个单元，每个紧邻着。每个单元都包涵来自某个有限字母表的一个符号。字母表中包含有一个特殊的空白符号（此处写作“0”）和一个或者多个其他符号。假设纸带可以任意向左/向右扩展，所以图灵机拥有能够支撑起计算所需的纸带数量。没有写入过的单元格被假定用空白符号填充。在某些型号中，胶带的左端标有特殊符号；磁带向右侧延伸或无限延伸。
• A head that can read and write symbols on the tape and move the tape left and right one (and only one) cell at a time. In some models the head moves and the tape is stationary.
• 读写头。读写头可以在纸带上读写符号，并一次将纸带左右移动一个（有且仅有一个）单元格。在某些型号的机器中，读写头移动而纸带静止。
• A state register that stores the state of the Turing machine, one of finitely many. Among these is the special start state with which the state register is initialized. These states, writes Turing, replace the "state of mind" a person performing computations would ordinarily be in.
• 状态寄存器。状态寄存器用来存储图灵机的状态，是有限多个状态中的一个。其中有一个特殊的启动状态，状态寄存器就是用它来初始化。图灵写道，这些状态代替了执行计算的人通常会处于的 "精神状态"。

• A finite table[1] of instructions[2] that, given the state(qi) the machine is currently in and the symbol(aj) it is reading on the tape (symbol currently under the head), tells the machine to do the following in sequence (for the 5-tuple models):
• 一个有限的指令表，给定机器当前所处的状态(qi)和它在纸带上读取的符号(aj)（当前读写头下的符号），告诉机器依次做以下事情（对于5元组模型）：
1. Either erase or write a symbol (replacing aj with aj1).
2. Move the head (which is described by dk and can have values: 'L' for one step left or 'R' for one step right or 'N' for staying in the same place).
3. Assume the same or a new state as prescribed (go to state qi1).
1. 擦除或写入一个符号（将aj替换为aj1）。
2. 移动读写头（由dk描述，如果值为'L'表示向左移动一步，'R'表示向右移动一步，'N'表示停留在原地）。
3. 假设与规定的状态相同或新的状态（进入状态qi1

In the 4-tuple models, erasing or writing a symbol (aj1) and moving the head left or right (dk) are specified as separate instructions. The table tells the machine to (ia) erase or write a symbol or (ib) move the head left or right, and then (ii) assume the same or a new state as prescribed, but not both actions (ia) and (ib) in the same instruction. In some models, if there is no entry in the table for the current combination of symbol and state, then the machine will halt; other models require all entries to be filled.

Every part of the machine (i.e. its state, symbol-collections, and used tape at any given time) and its actions (such as printing, erasing and tape motion) is finite, discrete and distinguishable; it is the unlimited amount of tape and runtime that gives it an unbounded amount of storage space.

## 正式定义

Following Hopcroft & Ullman (1979, p. 148), a (one-tape) Turing machine can be formally defined as a 7-tuple  where

• is a finite, non-empty set of tape alphabet symbols;
• is the blank symbol (the only symbol allowed to occur on the tape infinitely often at any step during the computation);
• is the set of input symbols, that is, the set of symbols allowed to appear in the initial tape contents;
• is a finite, non-empty set of states;
• is the initial state;
• is the set of final states or accepting states. The initial tape contents is said to be accepted by  if it eventually halts in a state from .
• is a partial function called the transition function, where L is left shift, R is right shift. If  is not defined on the current state and the current tape symbol, then the machine halts; intuitively, the transition function specifies the next state transited from the current state, which symbol to overwrite the current symbol pointed by the head, and the next head movement.

• Г是有限的、非空的纸带字母符号集
• bᕮГ，是空白符号（唯一允许在计算过程中的任何步骤无限频繁地出现在纸带上的符号）；
• Σ⊆Г\{b}是输入符号集，即允许出现在初始纸带内容中的符号集；
• Q是有限的、非空的状态集；
• q_0ᕮQ是初始状态；
• F⊆Q是最终状态接受状态的集合。初始纸带内容被认为是接受由M如果它最终停止在一个状态 F.
• δ: （Q \ F) Χ Г Χ {L, R}是一个偏函数，称为转移函数，其中 L 是左移，R 是右移。如果在当前状态和当前纸带符号上未定义，则机器停止；直观地，转移函数指定了从当前状态转移的下一个状态，哪个符号覆盖读写头指向的当前符号，以及下一个读写头运动。

In addition, the Turing machine can also have a reject state to make rejection more explicit. In that case there are three possibilities: accepting, rejecting, and running forever. Another possibility is to regard the final values on the tape as the output. However, if the only output is the final state the machine ends up in (or never halting), the machine can still effectively output a longer string by taking in an integer that tells it which bit of the string to output.

A relatively uncommon variant allows "no shift", say N, as a third element of the set of directions $\displaystyle{ \{L,R\} }$.

The 7-tuple for the 3-state busy beaver looks like this (see more about this busy beaver at Turing machine examples):

• Q={A, B, C, HALT}(状态);
• Г= {0, 1}(纸带符号);
• b=0（空白符号）；
• Σ={1}（输入符号）；
• q_0 = A（初始状态）；
• F={HALT}（最终状态）；
• δ=参见下面的状态表（转换函数）。

Initially all tape cells are marked with $\displaystyle{ 0 }$.

State table for 3-state, 2-symbol busy beaver

0 1 R B 1 L A 1 L B
1 1 L C 1 R B 1 R 停机

## 可视化或实现图灵机所需的其他细节

In the words of van Emde Boas (1990), p. 6: "The set-theoretical object [his formal seven-tuple description similar to the above] provides only partial information on how the machine will behave and what its computations will look like."

In the words of van Emde Boas (1990), p. 6: "The set-theoretical object [his formal seven-tuple description similar to the above] provides only partial information on how the machine will behave and what its computations will look like."

For instance, 例如，

• There will need to be many decisions on what the symbols actually look like, and a failproof way of reading and writing symbols indefinitely.
• 符号到底是什么样子的，需要有很多决策，也需要有一种万无一失的方法来无穷尽地读写符号。
• The shift left and shift right operations may shift the tape head across the tape, but when actually building a Turing machine it is more practical to make the tape slide back and forth under the head instead.
• 左移和右移操作可能会使读写头在纸带上移动，但在实际构建图灵机时，更实际的做法是让纸带在读写头下来回滑动。
• The tape can be finite, and automatically extended with blanks as needed (which is closest to the mathematical definition), but it is more common to think of it as stretching infinitely at one or both ends and being pre-filled with blanks except on the explicitly given finite fragment the tape head is on. (This is, of course, not implementable in practice.) The tape cannot be fixed in length, since that would not correspond to the given definition and would seriously limit the range of computations the machine can perform to those of a linear bounded automaton if the tape was proportional to the input size, or finite state machine if it was strictly fixed-length.
• 纸带可以是有限的，并根据需要自动延伸出空白（这是最接近数学定义的），但更常见的是将其视为在一端或两端无限延伸，除了读写头所在的明确给定的有限片段外，都会被预先填充空白。(当然，这在实践中是无法实现的。)纸带的长度不能是固定的，因为那不符合给定的定义，而且会严重限制机器可以执行的计算范围，如果纸带与输入大小成正比，则为线性有界自动机的计算范围，如果纸带是严格的固定长度，则为有限状态机的计算范围。

### 其他定义

Definitions in literature sometimes differ slightly, to make arguments or proofs easier or clearer, but this is always done in such a way that the resulting machine has the same computational power. For example, the set could be changed from $\displaystyle{ \{L,R\} }$ to $\displaystyle{ \{L,R,N\} }$, where N ("None" or "No-operation") would allow the machine to stay on the same tape cell instead of moving left or right. This would not increase the machine's computational power.

The most common convention represents each "Turing instruction" in a "Turing table" by one of nine 5-tuples, per the convention of Turing/Davis (Turing (1936) in The Undecidable, p. 126-127 and Davis (2000) p. 152):

Other authors (Minsky (1967) p. 119, Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) p. 158, Stone (1972) p. 9) adopt a different convention, with new state qm listed immediately after the scanned symbol Sj:

(定义2): (qi, Sj, qm, Sk/E/N, L/R/N)

( current state qi , symbol scanned Sj , new state qm , print symbol Sk/erase E/none N , move_tape_one_square left L/right R/none N )
( 当前状态 qi , 扫描符号 Sj , 新状态 qm , 打印 Sk/擦除 E/none N ,  L/right R/none N )


For the remainder of this article "definition 1" (the Turing/Davis convention) will be used.

5元组

A 0 1 R B (A, 0, 1, R, B)
A 1 1 L C (A, 1, 1, L, C)
B 0 1 L A (B, 0, 1, L, A)
B 1 1 R B (B, 1, 1, R, B)
C 0 1 L B (C, 0, 1, L, B)
C 1 1 N H (C, 1, 1, N, H)

In the following table, Turing's original model allowed only the first three lines that he called N1, N2, N3 (cf. Turing in The Undecidable, p. 126). He allowed for erasure of the "scanned square" by naming a 0th symbol S0 = "erase" or "blank", etc. However, he did not allow for non-printing, so every instruction-line includes "print symbol Sk" or "erase" (cf. footnote 12 in Post (1947), The Undecidable, p. 300). The abbreviations are Turing's (The Undecidable, p. 119). Subsequent to Turing's original paper in 1936–1937, machine-models have allowed all nine possible types of five-tuples:

(（图灵状态）

（图灵状态）

5元组

5元组注释

4元组

N1 qi Sj 打印(Sk) 向左 L qm (qi, Sj, Sk, L, qm) "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc.
N2 qi Sj 打印(Sk) 向右 R qm (qi, Sj, Sk, R, qm) "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc.
N3 qi Sj 打印(Sk) 空 N qm (qi, Sj, Sk, N, qm) "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc. (qi, Sj, Sk, qm)
4 qi Sj 空 N 向左 L qm (qi, Sj, N, L, qm) (qi, Sj, L, qm)
5 qi Sj 空 N 向右 R qm (qi, Sj, N, R, qm) (qi, Sj, R, qm)
6 qi Sj None N None N qm (qi, Sj, N, N, qm) Direct "jump" (qi, Sj, N, qm)
7 qi Sj 擦除 向左 L qm (qi, Sj, E, L, qm)
8 qi Sj 擦除 向右 R qm (qi, Sj, E, R, qm)
9 qi Sj 擦除 空 N qm (qi, Sj, E, N, qm) (qi, Sj, E, qm)

Any Turing table (list of instructions) can be constructed from the above nine 5-tuples. For technical reasons, the three non-printing or "N" instructions (4, 5, 6) can usually be dispensed with. For examples see Turing machine examples.

Less frequently the use of 4-tuples are encountered: these represent a further atomization of the Turing instructions (cf. Post (1947), Boolos & Jeffrey (1974, 1999), Davis-Sigal-Weyuker (1994)); also see more at Post–Turing machine.

### 状态

The word "state" used in context of Turing machines can be a source of confusion, as it can mean two things. Most commentators after Turing have used "state" to mean the name/designator of the current instruction to be performed—i.e. the contents of the state register. But Turing (1936) made a strong distinction between a record of what he called the machine's "m-configuration", and the machine's (or person's) "state of progress" through the computation - the current state of the total system. What Turing called "the state formula" includes both the current instruction and all the symbols on the tape:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

Earlier in his paper Turing carried this even further: he gives an example where he placed a symbol of the current "m-configuration"—the instruction's label—beneath the scanned square, together with all the symbols on the tape (The Undecidable, p. 121); this he calls "the complete configuration" (The Undecidable, p. 118). To print the "complete configuration" on one line, he places the state-label/m-configuration to the left of the scanned symbol.

A variant of this is seen in Kleene (1952) where Kleene shows how to write the Gödel number of a machine's "situation": he places the "m-configuration" symbol q4 over the scanned square in roughly the center of the 6 non-blank squares on the tape (see the Turing-tape figure in this article) and puts it to the right of the scanned square. But Kleene refers to "q4" itself as "the machine state" (Kleene, p. 374-375). Hopcroft and Ullman call this composite the "instantaneous description" and follow the Turing convention of putting the "current state" (instruction-label, m-configuration) to the left of the scanned symbol (p. 149).

Example: total state of 3-state 2-symbol busy beaver after 3 "moves" (taken from example "run" in the figure below):

1A1

This means: after three moves the tape has ... 000110000 ... on it, the head is scanning the right-most 1, and the state is A. Blanks (in this case represented by "0"s) can be part of the total state as shown here: B01; the tape has a single 1 on it, but the head is scanning the 0 ("blank") to its left and the state is B.

"State" in the context of Turing machines should be clarified as to which is being described: (i) the current instruction, or (ii) the list of symbols on the tape together with the current instruction, or (iii) the list of symbols on the tape together with the current instruction placed to the left of the scanned symbol or to the right of the scanned symbol.

Turing's biographer Andrew Hodges (1983: 107) has noted and discussed this confusion.

### 图灵机的状态图

0 P R B P L A P L B
1 P L C P R B P R 停机

The "3-state busy beaver" Turing machine in a finite state representation. Each circle represents a "state" of the table—an "m-configuration" or "instruction". "Direction" of a state transition is shown by an arrow. The label (e.g. 0/P,R) near the outgoing state (at the "tail" of the arrow) specifies the scanned symbol that causes a particular transition (e.g. 0) followed by a slash /, followed by the subsequent "behaviors" of the machine, e.g. "P Print" then move tape "R Right". No general accepted format exists. The convention shown is after McClusky (1965), Booth (1967), Hill, and Peterson (1974).

"三态繁忙的海狸"图灵机的有限状态表示。每个圆圈代表表的一个 "状态"--一个 "m-配置 "或 "指令"。状态转换的 "方向 "用箭头表示。出状态附近的标签(如0/P,R)(在箭头的 "尾部")指定了引起特定转换的扫描符号(如0)，后面是斜线/，接着是机器的后续 "行为"，如 "P打印 "然后移动纸带 "R右"。没有普遍接受的格式存在。所显示的规则是以McClusky（1965）、Booth（1967）、Hill和Peterson（1974）为蓝本。

To the right: the above table as expressed as a "state transition" diagram.

Usually large tables are better left as tables (Booth, p. 74). They are more readily simulated by computer in tabular form (Booth, p. 74). However, certain concepts—e.g. machines with "reset" states and machines with repeating patterns (cf. Hill and Peterson p. 244ff)—can be more readily seen when viewed as a drawing.

Whether a drawing represents an improvement on its table must be decided by the reader for the particular context. See Finite state machine for more.

The evolution of the busy-beaver's computation starts at the top and proceeds to the bottom.

i

The evolution of the busy-beaver's computation starts at the top and proceeds to the bottom.

The reader should again be cautioned that such diagrams represent a snapshot of their table frozen in time, not the course ("trajectory") of a computation through time and space. While every time the busy beaver machine "runs" it will always follow the same state-trajectory, this is not true for the "copy" machine that can be provided with variable input "parameters".

The diagram "Progress of the computation" shows the three-state busy beaver's "state" (instruction) progress through its computation from start to finish. On the far right is the Turing "complete configuration" (Kleene "situation", Hopcroft–Ullman "instantaneous description") at each step. If the machine were to be stopped and cleared to blank both the "state register" and entire tape, these "configurations" could be used to rekindle a computation anywhere in its progress (cf. Turing (1936) The Undecidable, pp. 139–140).

“计算进度 "图显示了三态繁忙的海狸从开始到结束的计算过程中的 "状态"（指令）进度。最右边是每一步的图灵 "完整配置"。如果机器停止并清空 "状态寄存器 "和整个纸带，则可以使用这些“配置”在其进行中的任何地方重新启动计算（参见Turing（1936）The Undecidable 第139– 140页）。

## 图灵机的等价模型

Many machines that might be thought to have more computational capability than a simple universal Turing machine can be shown to have no more power (Hopcroft and Ullman p. 159, cf. Minsky (1967)). They might compute faster, perhaps, or use less memory, or their instruction set might be smaller, but they cannot compute more powerfully (i.e. more mathematical functions). (Recall that the Church–Turing thesis hypothesizes this to be true for any kind of machine: that anything that can be "computed" can be computed by some Turing machine.)

A Turing machine is equivalent to a single-stack pushdown automaton (PDA) that has been made more flexible and concise by relaxing the last-in-first-out requirement of its stack. In addition, a Turing machine is also equivalent to a two-stack PDA with standard last-in-first-out semantics, by using one stack to model the tape left of the head and the other stack for the tape to the right.

At the other extreme, some very simple models turn out to be Turing-equivalent, i.e. to have the same computational power as the Turing machine model.

Common equivalent models are the multi-tape Turing machine, multi-track Turing machine, machines with input and output, and the non-deterministic Turing machine (NDTM) as opposed to the deterministic Turing machine (DTM) for which the action table has at most one entry for each combination of symbol and state.

Read-only, right-moving Turing machines are equivalent to DFAs (as well as NFAs by conversion using the NDFA to DFA conversion algorithm).

For practical and didactical intentions the equivalent register machine can be used as a usual assembly programming language.

An interesting question is whether the computation model represented by concrete programming languages is Turing equivalent. While the computation of a real computer is based on finite states and thus not capable to simulate a Turing machine, programming languages themselves do not necessarily have this limitation. Kirner et al., 2009 have shown that among the general-purpose programming languages some are Turing complete while others are not. For example, ANSI C is not Turing-equivalent, as all instantiations of ANSI C (different instantiations are possible as the standard deliberately leaves certain behaviour undefined for legacy reasons) imply a finite-space memory. This is because the size of memory reference data types, called pointers, is accessible inside the language. However, other programming languages like Pascal do not have this feature, which allows them to be Turing complete in principle. It is just Turing complete in principle, as memory allocation in a programming language is allowed to fail, which means the programming language can be Turing complete when ignoring failed memory allocations, but the compiled programs executable on a real computer cannot.

## 选择C型机器、Oracle的O型机器

Early in his paper (1936) Turing makes a distinction between an "automatic machine"—its "motion ... completely determined by the configuration" and a "choice machine":

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

Turing (1936) does not elaborate further except in a footnote in which he describes how to use an a-machine to "find all the provable formulae of the [Hilbert] calculus" rather than use a choice machine. He "suppose[s] that the choices are always between two possibilities 0 and 1. Each proof will then be determined by a sequence of choices i1, i2, ..., in (i1 = 0 or 1, i2 = 0 or 1, ..., in = 0 or 1), and hence the number 2n + i12n-1 + i22n-2 + ... +in completely determines the proof. The automatic machine carries out successively proof 1, proof 2, proof 3, ..." (Footnote ‡, The Undecidable, p. 138)

This is indeed the technique by which a deterministic (i.e., a-) Turing machine can be used to mimic the action of a nondeterministic Turing machine; Turing solved the matter in a footnote and appears to dismiss it from further consideration.

An oracle machine or o-machine is a Turing a-machine that pauses its computation at state "o" while, to complete its calculation, it "awaits the decision" of "the oracle"—an unspecified entity "apart from saying that it cannot be a machine" (Turing (1939), The Undecidable, p. 166–168).

Oracle机或 o-machine是一种图灵机器，它将计算暂停在“o”状态，同时，为了完成计算，它“等待”“oracle”- 一个未指定的实体（不是一台机器）“的决定(图灵(1939) ，The undecutable，p.166-168)。

## 通用图灵机

An implementation of a Turing machine

An implementation of a Turing machine

As Turing wrote in The Undecidable, p. 128 (italics added):

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

This finding is now taken for granted, but at the time (1936) it was considered astonishing. The model of computation that Turing called his "universal machine"—"U" for short—is considered by some (cf. Davis (2000)) to have been the fundamental theoretical breakthrough that led to the notion of the stored-program computer.

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

In terms of computational complexity, a multi-tape universal Turing machine need only be slower by logarithmic factor compared to the machines it simulates. This result was obtained in 1966 by F. C. Hennie and R. E. Stearns. (Arora and Barak, 2009, theorem 1.9)

## Comparison with real machines

A Turing machine realization using Lego pieces

A Turing machine realization using Lego pieces

It is often said模板:By whom that Turing machines, unlike simpler automata, are as powerful as real machines, and are able to execute any operation that a real program can. What is neglected in this statement is that, because a real machine can only have a finite number of configurations, this "real machine" is really nothing but a finite state machine. On the other hand, Turing machines are equivalent to machines that have an unlimited amount of storage space for their computations.

It is often said that Turing machines, unlike simpler automata, are as powerful as real machines, and are able to execute any operation that a real program can. What is neglected in this statement is that, because a real machine can only have a finite number of configurations, this "real machine" is really nothing but a finite state machine. On the other hand, Turing machines are equivalent to machines that have an unlimited amount of storage space for their computations.

There are a number of ways to explain why Turing machines are useful models of real computers:

1. Anything a real computer can compute, a Turing machine can also compute. For example: "A Turing machine can simulate any type of subroutine found in programming languages, including recursive procedures and any of the known parameter-passing mechanisms" (Hopcroft and Ullman p. 157). A large enough FSA can also model any real computer, disregarding IO. Thus, a statement about the limitations of Turing machines will also apply to real computers.

1. Anything a real computer can compute, a Turing machine can also compute. For example: "A Turing machine can simulate any type of subroutine found in programming languages, including recursive procedures and any of the known parameter-passing mechanisms" (Hopcroft and Ullman p. 157). A large enough FSA can also model any real computer, disregarding IO. Thus, a statement about the limitations of Turing machines will also apply to real computers.

1. The difference lies only with the ability of a Turing machine to manipulate an unbounded amount of data. However, given a finite amount of time, a Turing machine (like a real machine) can only manipulate a finite amount of data.
2.The difference lies only with the ability of a Turing machine to manipulate an unbounded amount of data. However, given a finite amount of time, a Turing machine (like a real machine) can only manipulate a finite amount of data.


1. Like a Turing machine, a real machine can have its storage space enlarged as needed, by acquiring more disks or other storage media.
3.Like a Turing machine, a real machine can have its storage space enlarged as needed, by acquiring more disks or other storage media.


1. Descriptions of real machine programs using simpler abstract models are often much more complex than descriptions using Turing machines. For example, a Turing machine describing an algorithm may have a few hundred states, while the equivalent deterministic finite automaton (DFA) on a given real machine has quadrillions. This makes the DFA representation infeasible to analyze.
4.Descriptions of real machine programs using simpler abstract models are often much more complex than descriptions using Turing machines. For example, a Turing machine describing an algorithm may have a few hundred states, while the equivalent deterministic finite automaton (DFA) on a given real machine has quadrillions. This makes the DFA representation infeasible to analyze.


1. Turing machines describe algorithms independent of how much memory they use. There is a limit to the memory possessed by any current machine, but this limit can rise arbitrarily in time. Turing machines allow us to make statements about algorithms which will (theoretically) hold forever, regardless of advances in conventional computing machine architecture.

5. Turing machines describe algorithms independent of how much memory they use. There is a limit to the memory possessed by any current machine, but this limit can rise arbitrarily in time. Turing machines allow us to make statements about algorithms which will (theoretically) hold forever, regardless of advances in conventional computing machine architecture.

1. Turing machines simplify the statement of algorithms. Algorithms running on Turing-equivalent abstract machines are usually more general than their counterparts running on real machines, because they have arbitrary-precision data types available and never have to deal with unexpected conditions (including, but not limited to, running out of memory).
6.Turing machines simplify the statement of algorithms. Algorithms running on Turing-equivalent abstract machines are usually more general than their counterparts running on real machines, because they have arbitrary-precision data types available and never have to deal with unexpected conditions (including, but not limited to, running out of memory).


An experimental prototype of a Turing machine

An experimental prototype of a Turing machine

### Limitations of Turing machines

#### Computational complexity theory

A limitation of Turing machines is that they do not model the strengths of a particular arrangement well. For instance, modern stored-program computers are actually instances of a more specific form of abstract machine known as the random-access stored-program machine or RASP machine model. Like the universal Turing machine, the RASP stores its "program" in "memory" external to its finite-state machine's "instructions". Unlike the universal Turing machine, the RASP has an infinite number of distinguishable, numbered but unbounded "registers"—memory "cells" that can contain any integer (cf. Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), and in particular Cook-Rechow (1973); references at random access machine). The RASP's finite-state machine is equipped with the capability for indirect addressing (e.g., the contents of one register can be used as an address to specify another register); thus the RASP's "program" can address any register in the register-sequence. The upshot of this distinction is that there are computational optimizations that can be performed based on the memory indices, which are not possible in a general Turing machine; thus when Turing machines are used as the basis for bounding running times, a 'false lower bound' can be proven on certain algorithms' running times (due to the false simplifying assumption of a Turing machine). An example of this is binary search, an algorithm that can be shown to perform more quickly when using the RASP model of computation rather than the Turing machine model.

A limitation of Turing machines is that they do not model the strengths of a particular arrangement well. For instance, modern stored-program computers are actually instances of a more specific form of abstract machine known as the random-access stored-program machine or RASP machine model. Like the universal Turing machine, the RASP stores its "program" in "memory" external to its finite-state machine's "instructions". Unlike the universal Turing machine, the RASP has an infinite number of distinguishable, numbered but unbounded "registers"—memory "cells" that can contain any integer (cf. Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), and in particular Cook-Rechow (1973); references at random access machine). The RASP's finite-state machine is equipped with the capability for indirect addressing (e.g., the contents of one register can be used as an address to specify another register); thus the RASP's "program" can address any register in the register-sequence. The upshot of this distinction is that there are computational optimizations that can be performed based on the memory indices, which are not possible in a general Turing machine; thus when Turing machines are used as the basis for bounding running times, a 'false lower bound' can be proven on certain algorithms' running times (due to the false simplifying assumption of a Turing machine). An example of this is binary search, an algorithm that can be shown to perform more quickly when using the RASP model of computation rather than the Turing machine model.

#### Concurrency

Another limitation of Turing machines is that they do not model concurrency well. For example, there is a bound on the size of integer that can be computed by an always-halting nondeterministic Turing machine starting on a blank tape. (See article on unbounded nondeterminism.) By contrast, there are always-halting concurrent systems with no inputs that can compute an integer of unbounded size. (A process can be created with local storage that is initialized with a count of 0 that concurrently sends itself both a stop and a go message. When it receives a go message, it increments its count by 1 and sends itself a go message. When it receives a stop message, it stops with an unbounded number in its local storage.)

#### Interaction

In the early days of computing, computer use was typically limited to batch processing, i.e., non-interactive tasks, each producing output data from given input data. Computability theory, which studies computability of functions from inputs to outputs, and for which Turing machines were invented, reflects this practice.

In the early days of computing, computer use was typically limited to batch processing, i.e., non-interactive tasks, each producing output data from given input data. Computability theory, which studies computability of functions from inputs to outputs, and for which Turing machines were invented, reflects this practice.

Since the 1970s, interactive use of computers became much more common. In principle, it is possible to model this by having an external agent read from the tape and write to it at the same time as a Turing machine, but this rarely matches how interaction actually happens; therefore, when describing interactivity, alternatives such as I/O automata are usually preferred.

Since the 1970s, interactive use of computers became much more common. In principle, it is possible to model this by having an external agent read from the tape and write to it at the same time as a Turing machine, but this rarely matches how interaction actually happens; therefore, when describing interactivity, alternatives such as I/O automata are usually preferred.

## History

They were described in 1936 by Alan Turing.

They were described in 1936 by Alan Turing.

Alan Turing在1936年描述了它们。

### Historical background: computational machinery

Robin Gandy (1919–1995)—a student of Alan Turing (1912–1954), and his lifelong friend—traces the lineage of the notion of "calculating machine" back to Charles Babbage (circa 1834) and actually proposes "Babbage's Thesis":

Robin Gandy (1919–1995)—a student of Alan Turing (1912–1954), and his lifelong friend—traces the lineage of the notion of "calculating machine" back to Charles Babbage (circa 1834) and actually proposes "Babbage's Thesis":

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

Gandy's analysis of Babbage's Analytical Engine describes the following five operations (cf. p. 52–53):

Gandy's analysis of Babbage's Analytical Engine describes the following five operations (cf. p. 52–53):

1. The arithmetic functions +, −, ×, where − indicates "proper" subtraction xy = 0 if yx.

The arithmetic functions +, −, ×, where − indicates "proper" subtraction 0}} if yx. 算术函数 + ,-，× ，其中-表示“适当的”减法x-y=0,如果y ≥x。

1. Any sequence of operations is an operation.

Any sequence of operations is an operation.

1. Iteration of an operation (repeating n times an operation P).

Iteration of an operation (repeating n times an operation P). Iteration of an operation (repeating n times an operation P).

1. Conditional iteration (repeating n times an operation P conditional on the "success" of test T).

Conditional iteration (repeating n times an operation P conditional on the "success" of test T).

1. Conditional transfer (i.e., conditional "goto").
Conditional transfer (i.e., conditional "goto").


Gandy states that "the functions which can be calculated by (1), (2), and (4) are precisely those which are Turing computable." (p. 53). He cites other proposals for "universal calculating machines" including those of Percy Ludgate (1909), Leonardo Torres y Quevedo (1914), Maurice d'Ocagne (1922), Louis Couffignal (1933), Vannevar Bush (1936), Howard Aiken (1937). However:

Gandy states that "the functions which can be calculated by (1), (2), and (4) are precisely those which are Turing computable." (p. 53). He cites other proposals for "universal calculating machines" including those of Percy Ludgate (1909), Leonardo Torres y Quevedo (1914), Maurice d'Ocagne (1922), Louis Couffignal (1933), Vannevar Bush (1936), Howard Aiken (1937). However:

Gandy指出: “可由(1)、(2)和(4)计算出来的函数恰恰是那些图灵可计算的函数。”(p. 53).他引用了其他关于“通用计算机”的提议，包括珀西 · 卢德盖特Percy Ludgate (1909年)、莱昂纳多 · 托雷斯 · 奎维多Leonardo Torres y Quevedo(1914年)、莫里斯 · d’奥卡涅Maurice d'Ocagne (1922年)、路易斯 · 库夫尼纳尔Louis Couffignal(1933年)、万尼瓦尔 · 布什Vannevar Bush (1936年)、霍华德 · 艾肯Howard Aiken(1937年)。然而:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

...强调的是一个固定的可迭代的算术运算序列的编程。没有认识到条件迭代和条件转移对一般计算机理论的根本重要性......。

- Gandy，第55页

### The Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem"): Hilbert's tenth question of 1900

“决策问题”:希尔伯特Hilbert 1900年提出的第10号问题 With regard to Hilbert's problems posed by the famous mathematician David Hilbert in 1900, an aspect of problem #10 had been floating about for almost 30 years before it was framed precisely. Hilbert's original expression for #10 is as follows:

With regard to Hilbert's problems posed by the famous mathematician David Hilbert in 1900, an aspect of problem #10 had been floating about for almost 30 years before it was framed precisely. Hilbert's original expression for #10 is as follows:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

The Entscheidungsproblem [decision problem for first-order logic] is solved when we know a procedure that allows for any given logical expression to decide by finitely many operations its validity or satisfiability ... The Entscheidungsproblem must be considered the main problem of mathematical logic.|quoted, with this translation and the original German, in Dershowitz and Gurevich, 2008}}

By 1922, this notion of "Entscheidungsproblem" had developed a bit, and H. Behmann stated that

By 1922, this notion of "Entscheidungsproblem" had developed a bit, and H. Behmann stated that

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

Behmann指出，......一般问题相当于决定哪些数学命题是真的问题。 —同上 /* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

- 同上，第92页

By the 1928 international congress of mathematicians, Hilbert "made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics complete ... Second, was mathematics consistent ... And thirdly, was mathematics decidable?" (Hodges p. 91, Hawking p. 1121). The first two questions were answered in 1930 by Kurt Gödel at the very same meeting where Hilbert delivered his retirement speech (much to the chagrin of Hilbert); the third—the Entscheidungsproblem—had to wait until the mid-1930s.

By the 1928 international congress of mathematicians, Hilbert "made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics complete ... Second, was mathematics consistent ... And thirdly, was mathematics decidable?" (Hodges p. 91, Hawking p. 1121). The first two questions were answered in 1930 by Kurt Gödel at the very same meeting where Hilbert delivered his retirement speech (much to the chagrin of Hilbert); the third—the Entscheidungsproblem—had to wait until the mid-1930s.

The problem was that an answer first required a precise definition of "definite general applicable prescription", which Princeton professor Alonzo Church would come to call "effective calculability", and in 1928 no such definition existed. But over the next 6–7 years Emil Post developed his definition of a worker moving from room to room writing and erasing marks per a list of instructions (Post 1936), as did Church and his two students Stephen Kleene and J. B. Rosser by use of Church's lambda-calculus and Gödel's recursion theory (1934). Church's paper (published 15 April 1936) showed that the Entscheidungsproblem was indeed "undecidable" and beat Turing to the punch by almost a year (Turing's paper submitted 28 May 1936, published January 1937). In the meantime, Emil Post submitted a brief paper in the fall of 1936, so Turing at least had priority over Post. While Church refereed Turing's paper, Turing had time to study Church's paper and add an Appendix where he sketched a proof that Church's lambda-calculus and his machines would compute the same functions.

The problem was that an answer first required a precise definition of "definite general applicable prescription", which Princeton professor Alonzo Church would come to call "effective calculability", and in 1928 no such definition existed. But over the next 6–7 years Emil Post developed his definition of a worker moving from room to room writing and erasing marks per a list of instructions (Post 1936), as did Church and his two students Stephen Kleene and J. B. Rosser by use of Church's lambda-calculus and Gödel's recursion theory (1934). Church's paper (published 15 April 1936) showed that the Entscheidungsproblem was indeed "undecidable" and beat Turing to the punch by almost a year (Turing's paper submitted 28 May 1936, published January 1937). In the meantime, Emil Post submitted a brief paper in the fall of 1936, so Turing at least had priority over Post. While Church refereed Turing's paper, Turing had time to study Church's paper and add an Appendix where he sketched a proof that Church's lambda-calculus and his machines would compute the same functions.

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

—Hodges，第112页

And Post had only proposed a definition of calculability and criticized Church's "definition", but had proved nothing.

And Post had only proposed a definition of calculability and criticized Church's "definition", but had proved nothing.

Post只是提出了一个可计算性的定义，并批评了Church的“定义” ，但没有证明任何事情。

### Alan Turing's a-machine

Alan Turing的机器

In the spring of 1935, Turing as a young Master's student at King's College Cambridge, UK, took on the challenge; he had been stimulated by the lectures of the logician M. H. A. Newman "and learned from them of Gödel's work and the Entscheidungsproblem ... Newman used the word 'mechanical' ... In his obituary of Turing 1955 Newman writes:

In the spring of 1935, Turing as a young Master's student at King's College Cambridge, UK, took on the challenge; he had been stimulated by the lectures of the logician M. H. A. Newman "and learned from them of Gödel's work and the Entscheidungsproblem ... Newman used the word 'mechanical' ... In his obituary of Turing 1955 Newman writes:

1935年春天，Turing作为英国剑桥大学国王学院的一名年轻的硕士生接受了这个挑战，他曾受到逻辑学家 纽曼m. h. a. Newman 的演讲的鼓舞，从他们那里学到了哥德尔的作品和判定问题。在Turing1955年的讣告中，Newman写道:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

—Gandy，第74页

Gandy states that:

Gandy states that:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

- 同上，第76页

While Gandy believed that Newman's statement above is "misleading", this opinion is not shared by all. Turing had a lifelong interest in machines: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; [his mother] Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'" (Hodges p. 96). While at Princeton pursuing his PhD, Turing built a Boolean-logic multiplier (see below). His PhD thesis, titled "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals", contains the following definition of "a computable function":

While Gandy believed that Newman's statement above is "misleading", this opinion is not shared by all. Turing had a lifelong interest in machines: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; [his mother] Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'" (Hodges p. 96). While at Princeton pursuing his PhD, Turing built a Boolean-logic multiplier (see below). His PhD thesis, titled "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals", contains the following definition of "a computable function":

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

- 图灵(1939)在The Undecidable一书中，第160页。

When Turing returned to the UK he ultimately became jointly responsible for breaking the German secret codes created by encryption machines called "The Enigma"; he also became involved in the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), "[Turing's] ACE proposal was effectively self-contained, and its roots lay not in the EDVAC [the USA's initiative], but in his own universal machine" (Hodges p. 318). Arguments still continue concerning the origin and nature of what has been named by Kleene (1952) Turing's Thesis. But what Turing did prove with his computational-machine model appears in his paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (1937):

When Turing returned to the UK he ultimately became jointly responsible for breaking the German secret codes created by encryption machines called "The Enigma"; he also became involved in the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), "[Turing's] ACE proposal was effectively self-contained, and its roots lay not in the EDVAC [the USA's initiative], but in his own universal machine" (Hodges p. 318). Arguments still continue concerning the origin and nature of what has been named by Kleene (1952) Turing's Thesis. But what Turing did prove with his computational-machine model appears in his paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (1937):

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

- 摘自Turing的论文，详见The Undecidable，第145页。

Turing's example (his second proof): If one is to ask for a general procedure to tell us: "Does this machine ever print 0", the question is "undecidable".

Turing的例子(他的第二个证明):如果有人要求用一般程序来告诉我们:“这台机器是否曾经打印过0”，这个问题就是“无法确定的”。

## =1937–1970: The "digital computer", the birth of "computer science"

1937–1970: "数字计算机"，"计算机科学 "的诞生。

In 1937, while at Princeton working on his PhD thesis, Turing built a digital (Boolean-logic) multiplier from scratch, making his own electromechanical relays (Hodges p. 138). "Alan's task was to embody the logical design of a Turing machine in a network of relay-operated switches ..." (Hodges p. 138). While Turing might have been just initially curious and experimenting, quite-earnest work in the same direction was going in Germany (Konrad Zuse (1938)), and in the United States (Howard Aiken) and George Stibitz (1937); the fruits of their labors were used by both the Axis and Allied militaries in World War II (cf. Hodges p. 298–299). In the early to mid-1950s Hao Wang and Marvin Minsky reduced the Turing machine to a simpler form (a precursor to the Post–Turing machine of Martin Davis); simultaneously European researchers were reducing the new-fangled electronic computer to a computer-like theoretical object equivalent to what was now being called a "Turing machine". In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the coincidentally parallel developments of Melzak and Lambek (1961), Minsky (1961), and Shepherdson and Sturgis (1961) carried the European work further and reduced the Turing machine to a more friendly, computer-like abstract model called the counter machine; Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), Cook and Reckhow (1973) carried this work even further with the register machine and random-access machine models—but basically all are just multi-tape Turing machines with an arithmetic-like instruction set.

In 1937, while at Princeton working on his PhD thesis, Turing built a digital (Boolean-logic) multiplier from scratch, making his own electromechanical relays (Hodges p. 138). "Alan's task was to embody the logical design of a Turing machine in a network of relay-operated switches ..." (Hodges p. 138). While Turing might have been just initially curious and experimenting, quite-earnest work in the same direction was going in Germany (Konrad Zuse (1938)), and in the United States (Howard Aiken) and George Stibitz (1937); the fruits of their labors were used by both the Axis and Allied militaries in World War II (cf. Hodges p. 298–299). In the early to mid-1950s Hao Wang and Marvin Minsky reduced the Turing machine to a simpler form (a precursor to the Post–Turing machine of Martin Davis); simultaneously European researchers were reducing the new-fangled electronic computer to a computer-like theoretical object equivalent to what was now being called a "Turing machine". In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the coincidentally parallel developments of Melzak and Lambek (1961), Minsky (1961), and Shepherdson and Sturgis (1961) carried the European work further and reduced the Turing machine to a more friendly, computer-like abstract model called the counter machine; Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), Cook and Reckhow (1973) carried this work even further with the register machine and random-access machine models—but basically all are just multi-tape Turing machines with an arithmetic-like instruction set.

1937年，在普林斯顿写博士论文的时候，Turing从零开始制造了一个数字(布尔逻辑)乘法器，自制了机电继电器(Hodges p. 138)。“Alan的任务是将图灵机的逻辑设计体现在继电器操作的开关网络中......”(Hodges p. 138)。虽然Turing最初可能只是好奇和试验，但是在德国(Konrad Zuse，1938年)和美国(Howard Aiken，1937年)都在朝着同一个方向努力，他们的劳动成果被轴心国和盟国的军队在二战中使用。Hodges p. 298-299)。在20世纪50年代早期到中期，Hao Wang 和 Marvin Minsky 将图灵机简化为一种更简单的形式(它是 Martin Davis 的后图灵机的前身) ; 与此同时，欧洲研究人员将这种新型电子计算机简化为一种类似于计算机的理论物体，相当于现在所说的“图灵机”。在20世纪50年代后期和60年代初期， Melzak 和 Lambek (1961)、 Minsky (1961)和 Shepherdson and Sturgis (1961)等人不约而同地同步发展，进一步推进了欧洲的工作，并将图灵机简化为一个更友好的、类似计算机的抽象模型，称为计数器; Elgot 和 Robinson (1964)、 Hartmanis (1971)、 Cook 和 Reckhow (1973)将这项工作进一步推进到寄存器和随机存取机器模型ーー但基本上所有这些都只是带有类似算术指令集的多带图灵机。

### 1970–present: the Turing machine as a model of computation

1970年至今：作为计算模型的图灵机

Today, the counter, register and random-access machines and their sire the Turing machine continue to be the models of choice for theorists investigating questions in the theory of computation. In particular, computational complexity theory makes use of the Turing machine:

Today, the counter, register and random-access machines and their sire the Turing machine continue to be the models of choice for theorists investigating questions in the theory of computation. In particular, computational complexity theory makes use of the Turing machine:

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

/* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite {

   line-height: 1.5em;
/* @noflip */
text-align: left;
/* @noflip */
margin-top: 0;


}

- van Emde Boas 1990:16

• Bekenstein bound, showing the impossibility of infinite-tape Turing machines of finite size and bounded energy 贝肯斯坦约束，表明不可能出现有限大小和有限能量的无限带图灵机。

Chaitin常数或Omega(计算机科学)以获取有关停止问题的信息。

• Langton's ant and Turmites, simple two-dimensional analogues of the Turing machine 兰顿蚁和图米特，图灵机的简单二维类比

• Turing tarpit, any computing system or language that, despite being Turing complete, is generally considered useless for practical computing 图灵图谱，任何计算系统或语言，尽管是Turing完成的，通常被认为对实际计算无用
• Unorganized machine, for Turing's very early ideas on neural networks 无组织的机器，Turing关于神经网络的早期想法

## Notes

1. Occasionally called an action table or transition function.
2. Usually quintuples [5-tuples]: qiaj→qi1aj1dk, but sometimes quadruples [4-tuples].

## References

### Primary literature, reprints, and compilations

• B. Jack Copeland ed. (2004), The Essential Turing: Seminal Writings in Computing, Logic, Philosophy, Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Life plus The Secrets of Enigma, Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press), Oxford UK, . Contains the Turing papers plus a draft letter to Emil Post re his criticism of "Turing's convention", and Donald W. Davies' Corrections to Turing's Universal Computing Machine
• Martin Davis (ed.) (1965), The Undecidable, Raven Press, Hewlett, NY.
• Emil Post (1936), "Finite Combinatory Processes—Formulation 1", Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1, 103–105, 1936. Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp. 289ff.
• Emil Post (1947), "Recursive Unsolvability of a Problem of Thue", Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 12, pp. 1–11. Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp. 293ff. In the Appendix of this paper Post comments on and gives corrections to Turing's paper of 1936–1937. In particular see the footnotes 11 with corrections to the universal computing machine coding and footnote 14 with comments on Turing's first and second proofs.
• Turing, A.M. (1936). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2 (published 1937). 42: 230–265. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230. (and Turing, A.M. (1938). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2 (published 1937). 43 (6): 544–6. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544.). Reprinted in many collections, e.g. in The Undecidable, pp. 115–154; available on the web in many places.
• Alan Turing, 1948, "Intelligent Machinery." Reprinted in "Cybernetics: Key Papers." Ed. C.R. Evans and A.D.J. Robertson. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1968. p. 31. Reprinted in Turing, A. M. (1996). "Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory". Philosophia Mathematica. 4 (3): 256–260. doi:10.1093/philmat/4.3.256.
• F. C. Hennie and R. E. Stearns. Two-tape simulation of multitape Turing machines. JACM, 13(4):533–546, 1966.

### Computability theory

• Boolos, George; John Burgess; Richard Jeffrey (2002). Computability and Logic (4th ed.). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00758-5.  Some parts have been significantly rewritten by Burgess. Presentation of Turing machines in context of Lambek "abacus machines" (cf. Register machine) and recursive functions, showing their equivalence.
• Taylor L. Booth (1967), Sequential Machines and Automata Theory, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Graduate level engineering text; ranges over a wide variety of topics, Chapter IX Turing Machines includes some recursion theory.
• Martin Davis (1958). Computability and Unsolvability. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, New York. . On pages 12–20 he gives examples of 5-tuple tables for Addition, The Successor Function, Subtraction (x ≥ y), Proper Subtraction (0 if x < y), The Identity Function and various identity functions, and Multiplication.
• Davis, Martin; Ron Sigal; Elaine J. Weyuker (1994). Computability, Complexity, and Languages and Logic: Fundamentals of Theoretical Computer Science (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press, Harcourt, Brace & Company. ISBN 0-12-206382-1.
• Hennie, Fredrick (1977). Introduction to Computability. Addison–Wesley, Reading, Mass. QA248.5H4 1977. . On pages 90–103 Hennie discusses the UTM with examples and flow-charts, but no actual 'code'.
• John Hopcroft and Jeffrey Ullman (1979). Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (1st ed.). Addison–Wesley, Reading Mass. ISBN 0-201-02988-X.  Centered around the issues of machine-interpretation of "languages", NP-completeness, etc.
• Hopcroft, John E.; Rajeev Motwani; Jeffrey D. Ullman (2001). Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (2nd ed.). Reading Mass: Addison–Wesley. ISBN 0-201-44124-1.  Distinctly different and less intimidating than the first edition.
• Stephen Kleene (1952), Introduction to Metamathematics, North–Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam Netherlands, 10th impression (with corrections of 6th reprint 1971). Graduate level text; most of Chapter XIII Computable functions is on Turing machine proofs of computability of recursive functions, etc.
• Knuth, Donald E. (1973). Volume 1/Fundamental Algorithms: The Art of computer Programming (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison–Wesley Publishing Company. . With reference to the role of Turing machines in the development of computation (both hardware and software) see 1.4.5 History and Bibliography pp. 225ff and 2.6 History and Bibliographypp. 456ff.
• Marvin Minsky, Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines, Prentice–Hall, Inc., N.J., 1967. See Chapter 8, Section 8.2 "Unsolvability of the Halting Problem." Excellent, i.e. relatively readable, sometimes funny.
• Hartley Rogers, Jr., Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability, The MIT Press, Cambridge MA, paperback edition 1987, original McGraw-Hill edition 1967, (pbk.)
•   Chapter 3: The Church–Turing Thesis, pp. 125–149.
• Stone, Harold S. (1972). Introduction to Computer Organization and Data Structures (1st ed.). New York: McGraw–Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-061726-0.
• Peter van Emde Boas 1990, Machine Models and Simulations, pp. 3–66, in Jan van Leeuwen, ed., Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science, Volume A: Algorithms and Complexity, The MIT Press/Elsevier, [place?], (Volume A). QA76.H279 1990. Valuable survey, with 141 references.

### Small Turing machines

• Todd Rowland, 2007, "Confusion on FOM", Wolfram Science message board, October 30, 2007.

### Other

• Stephen Hawking (editor), 2005, God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs that Changed History, Running Press, Philadelphia, . Includes Turing's 1936–1937 paper, with brief commentary and biography of Turing as written by Hawking.
• Rolf Herken (1995). The Universal Turing Machine—A Half-Century Survey. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-211-82637-9.
• Hao Wang, "A variant to Turing's theory of computing machines", Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery (JACM) 4, 63–92 (1957).
• Arora, Sanjeev; Barak, Boaz, "Complexity Theory: A Modern Approach", Cambridge University Press, 2009, , section 1.4, "Machines as strings and the universal Turing machine" and 1.7, "Proof of theorem 1.9"
• Kantorovitz, Isaiah Pinchas (December 1, 2005). "A note on turing machine computability of rule driven systems". SIGACT News. 36 (4): 109–110. doi:10.1145/1107523.1107525. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)