机器人学

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Shadow robot hand system]]

[影子机器人手系统]]

Robotics is an interdisciplinary research area at the interface of computer science^[1] and engineering. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives and keep everyone safe. Robotics draws on the achievement of information engineering, computer engineering, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering and others.

Robotics is an interdisciplinary research area at the interface of computer science and engineering. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives and keep everyone safe. Robotics draws on the achievement of information engineering, computer engineering, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering and others.

机器人技术是计算机科学和工程学交叉领域的科际整合。机器人学涉及到机器人的设计、建造、操作和使用。机器人技术的目标是设计智能机器，以帮助和协助人类的日常生活，并保证每个人的安全。机器人技术吸收了信息工程、计算机工程、机械工程、电子工程等学科的成果。

Robotics develops machines that can substitute for humans and replicate human actions. Robots can be used in many situations and for lots of purposes, but today many are used in dangerous environments (including inspection of radioactive materials, bomb detection and deactivation), manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive (e.g. in space, underwater, in high heat, and clean up and containment of hazardous materials and radiation). Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble humans in appearance. This is said to help in the acceptance of a robot in certain replicative behaviors usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, or any other human activity. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.

机器人技术开发的机器可以代替人类并复制人类的行为。机器人可以用于许多情况和许多用途，但今天许多机器人被用于危险环境(包括检查放射性材料、炸弹探测和失活)、制造过程或人类无法生存的地方(例如:。在太空，水下，在高温，清理和遏制有害物质和辐射)。机器人可以以任何形式出现，但有些机器人外表看起来像人类。据说，这有助于机器人接受某些通常由人类进行的复制行为。这些机器人试图复制行走、举重、说话、认知或任何其他人类活动。今天的许多机器人都是受大自然的启发，为仿生机器人领域做出了贡献。

The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously dates back to classical times, but research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century. Throughout history, it has been frequently assumed by various scholars, inventors, engineers, and technicians that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior and manage tasks in a human-like fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people, such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as a teaching aid.^[2] The advent of nanorobots, microscopic robots that can be injected into the human body, could revolutionize medicine and human health.^[3]

The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously dates back to classical times, but research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century. Throughout history, it has been frequently assumed by various scholars, inventors, engineers, and technicians that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior and manage tasks in a human-like fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people, such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as a teaching aid. The advent of nanorobots, microscopic robots that can be injected into the human body, could revolutionize medicine and human health.

创造可以自动操作的机器的概念可以追溯到古典时代，但是对机器人的功能和潜在用途的研究直到20世纪才有了实质性的发展。纵观历史，许多学者、发明家、工程师和技术人员经常认为，有朝一日，机器人将能够模仿人类的行为，并以类似人类的方式管理任务。今天，随着技术的不断进步，机器人技术是一个快速发展的领域; 研究、设计和制造新的机器人服务于各种各样的实用目的，无论是国内的，商业的，还是军事的。许多机器人被设计用来从事对人类有害的工作，比如拆除炸弹，在不稳定的废墟中寻找幸存者，探索地雷和沉船。机器人学也被用于 STEM (科学、技术、工程和数学)作为教学辅助工具。纳米机器人是一种可以注入人体的微型机器人，它的出现可能会给医学和人类健康带来革命性的变化。

Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. This field overlaps with computer engineering, computer science (especially artificial intelligence), electronics, mechatronics, nanotechnology and bioengineering.^[4]

Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. This field overlaps with computer engineering, computer science (especially artificial intelligence), electronics, mechatronics, nanotechnology and bioengineering.

机器人学是工程学的一个分支，涉及到机器人的概念、设计、制造和操作。这个领域与计算机工程、计算机科学(特别是人工智能)、电子学、机电一体化、纳米技术和生物工程有重叠。

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Etymology

词源学

The word robotics was derived from the word robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which was published in 1920.^[5] The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means slave/servant. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator.^[5]

The word robotics was derived from the word robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which was published in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means slave/servant. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator.

机器人这个词来源于机器人这个词，它是由捷克作家卡雷尔 · 阿佩克在他的戏剧《 r.u.r. 》中介绍给公众的。(罗森公司的万能机器人) ，1920年出版。机器人这个词来源于斯拉夫语 robota，意思是奴隶 / 仆人。这出戏开始于一家制造被称为机器人的人造人的工厂，这种生物可能会被误认为是人类——非常类似于现代的机器人观念。卡雷尔 · 阿佩克本人并没有创造这个词。他写了一封简短的信，提到了牛津英语词典的一个词源学，他在信中称他的兄弟 Josef apek 为词源学的真正创始人。

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, in his science fiction short story "Liar!", published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term; since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimov's other works, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround (Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942),引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签^[6] where he introduced his concept of The Three Laws of Robotics. However, the original publication of "Liar!" predates that of "Runaround" by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the word's origin.

</ref> where he introduced his concept of The Three Laws of Robotics. However, the original publication of "Liar!" predates that of "Runaround" by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the word's origin.

/ 参考他在哪里介绍了他的机器人三定律的概念。然而，最初出版的《说谎者! 》比“游手好闲”早十个月，所以前者通常被引用作为这个词的起源。

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History

历史

In 1948, Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics.

1948年，诺伯特 · 维纳提出了控制论原理，这是实用机器人学的基础。

Fully autonomous only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply, more accurately and more reliably, than humans. They are also employed in some jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly, packing and packaging, mining, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery^[7], weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and the mass production of consumer and industrial goods.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

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{ | class“ wikitable”

Date	Date	日期	Significance	Significance	重要性	Robot name	Robot name	机器人名称	Inventor	Inventor	发明家
Third century B.C. and earlier	Third century B.C. and earlier 前3世纪。而且更早	One of the earliest descriptions of automata appears in the Lie Zi text, on a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (1023–957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latter allegedly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork.^[8]	One of the earliest descriptions of automata appears in the Lie Zi text, on a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (1023–957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latter allegedly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork. 对自动机最早的描述之一出现在《列子》文本中，是在周穆王(公元前1023-957年)与机械工程师颜氏的一次更早的邂逅中。颜氏是一位“技工”。据说后者向国王展示了一个真人大小的、人形的机械手工制品。				Yan Shi (模板:Zh)	Yan Shi () 颜石()
First century A.D. and earlier	First century A.D. and earlier 公元一世纪或更早	Descriptions of more than 100 machines and automata, including a fire engine, a wind organ, a coin-operated machine, and a steam-powered engine, in Pneumatica and Automata by Heron of Alexandria	Descriptions of more than 100 machines and automata, including a fire engine, a wind organ, a coin-operated machine, and a steam-powered engine, in Pneumatica and Automata by Heron of Alexandria 描述 Pneumatica 的100多台机器和自动装置，包括一台消防车、一个风琴、一台硬币驱动的机器和一台蒸汽驱动的机器				Ctesibius, Philo of Byzantium, Heron of Alexandria, and others	Ctesibius, Philo of Byzantium, Heron of Alexandria, and others 费隆(拜占庭) ，亚历山大的苍鹭，等等
c. 420 B.C	c. 420 B.C 公元前420年	A wooden, steam propelled bird, which was able to fly	A wooden, steam propelled bird, which was able to fly 一种木制的蒸汽驱动的鸟，它能飞	Flying pigeon	Flying pigeon 飞鸽	Archytas of Tarentum	Archytas of Tarentum 塔伦特姆的阿奇塔斯
1206	1206	1206	Created early humanoid automata, programmable automaton band^[9]	Created early humanoid automata, programmable automaton band 创造了早期的人形自动机，可编程的自动机波段	Robot band, hand-washing automaton,^[10] automated moving peacocks^[11]	Robot band, hand-washing automaton, automated moving peacocks	机器人乐队，洗手自动机，自动移动孔雀	Al-Jazari	Al-Jazari Al-jazari
1495	1495	1495	Designs for a humanoid robot	Designs for a humanoid robot 人形机器人的设计	Mechanical Knight	Mechanical Knight 机械骑士	Leonardo da Vinci	Leonardo da Vinci 列奥纳多·达·芬奇
1738	1738	1738	Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap its wings, and excrete	Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap its wings, and excrete 会吃东西、扇动翅膀和排泄的机械鸭	Digesting Duck	Digesting Duck 消化鸭	Jacques de Vaucanson	Jacques de Vaucanson 雅克 · 德 · 沃坎森
1898	1898	1898	Nikola Tesla demonstrates first radio-controlled vessel.	Nikola Tesla demonstrates first radio-controlled vessel. 尼古拉 · 特斯拉展示第一艘无线电遥控飞船。	Teleautomaton	Teleautomaton 远程自动机	Nikola Tesla	Nikola Tesla 尼古拉 · 特斯拉
1921	1921	1921	First fictional automatons called "robots" appear in the play R.U.R.	First fictional automatons called "robots" appear in the play R.U.R. 第一个虚构的叫做“机器人”的机器人出现在剧本 r.u.r 中。	Rossum's Universal Robots	Rossum's Universal Robots	Rossum's Universal Robots	Karel Čapek	Karel Čapek	Karel Čapek
1930s	1930s 20世纪30年代	Humanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs	Humanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs 在1939年和1940年世界博览会上展出的人形机器人	Elektro	Elektro	Elektro	Westinghouse Electric Corporation	Westinghouse Electric Corporation 西屋电器
1946	1946	1946	First general-purpose digital computer	First general-purpose digital computer	第一台通用数字计算机	Whirlwind	Whirlwind	Whirlwind	Multiple people	Multiple people 多个人
1948	1948	1948	Simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors^[12]	Simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors	表现出生物行为的简单机器人	Elsie and Elmer	Elsie and Elmer 埃尔西和埃尔默	William Grey Walter	William Grey Walter 威廉 · 格雷 · 沃尔特
1956	1956	1956	First commercial robot, from the Unimation company founded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger, based on Devol's patents^[13]	First commercial robot, from the Unimation company founded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger, based on Devol's patents 第一个商用机器人，来自由乔治 · 德沃尔和约瑟夫 · 恩格尔伯格创立的 Unimation 公司，基于德沃尔的专利	Unimate	Unimate	Unimate	George Devol	George Devol	George Devol
1961	1961	1961	First installed industrial robot.	First installed industrial robot.	第一个安装的工业机器人。	Unimate	Unimate	Unimate	George Devol	George Devol	George Devol
1967 to 1972	1967 to 1972 1967年至1972年	First full-scale humanoid intelligent robot,^[14]^[15] and first android. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth.^[16]^[17]^[18]	First full-scale humanoid intelligent robot, and first android. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth.	第一个全尺寸仿人智能机器人，第一个机器人。它的肢体控制系统允许它用下肢行走，并通过触觉传感器用手抓住和运输物体。它的视觉系统允许它使用外部感受器，人造眼睛和耳朵来测量物体的距离和方向。它的对话系统允许它用一张人造的嘴和一个日本人交流。	WABOT-1	WABOT-1	WABOT-1	Waseda University	Waseda University 早稻田大学
1973	1973	1973	First industrial robot with six electromechanically driven axes^[19]^[20]	First industrial robot with six electromechanically driven axes 第一个具有六个机电驱动轴的工业机器人	Famulus	Famulus 女名女子名	KUKA Robot Group	KUKA Robot Group	KUKA Robot Group
1974	1974	1974	The world's first microcomputer controlled electric industrial robot, IRB 6 from ASEA, was delivered to a small mechanical engineering company in southern Sweden. The design of this robot had been patented already 1972.	The world's first microcomputer controlled electric industrial robot, IRB 6 from ASEA, was delivered to a small mechanical engineering company in southern Sweden. The design of this robot had been patented already 1972. 世界上第一台微电脑控制的电动工业机器人，来自 ASEA 的 irb6，被交付给瑞典南部的一家小型机械工程公司。这种机器人的设计早在1972年就获得了专利。	IRB 6	IRB 6	IRB 6	ABB Robot Group	ABB Robot Group	ABB Robot Group
1975	1975	1975	Programmable universal manipulation arm, a Unimation product	Programmable universal manipulation arm, a Unimation product	可编程的通用操作臂，一个 Unimation 产品	PUMA	PUMA 美洲狮	Victor Scheinman	Victor Scheinman 维克多 · 沙因曼
1978	1978	1978	First object-level robot programming language, allowing robots to handle variations in object position, shape, and sensor noise.	First object-level robot programming language, allowing robots to handle variations in object position, shape, and sensor noise.	第一种对象级机器人编程语言，允许机器人处理对象位置、形状和传感器噪声的变化。	Freddy I and II, RAPT robot programming language	Freddy I and II, RAPT robot programming language	Freddy i and II，RAPT 机器人编程语言	Patricia Ambler and Robin Popplestone	Patricia Ambler and Robin Popplestone 帕特里夏 · 安布勒和罗宾 · 波普尔斯通
1983	1983	1983	First multitasking, parallel programming language used for a robot control. It was the Event Driven Language (EDL) on the IBM/Series/1 process computer, with implementation of both inter process communication (WAIT/POST) and mutual exclusion (ENQ/DEQ) mechanisms for robot control.^[21]	First multitasking, parallel programming language used for a robot control. It was the Event Driven Language (EDL) on the IBM/Series/1 process computer, with implementation of both inter process communication (WAIT/POST) and mutual exclusion (ENQ/DEQ) mechanisms for robot control. 首先是多任务，用于机器人控制的并行编程语言。它是 ibm / series / 1进程计算机上的事件驱动语言(EDL) ，实现了进程间通信(wait / post)和互斥锁机器人控制(enq / deq)机制。	ADRIEL I	ADRIEL I 阿德里埃尔一世	Stevo Bozinovski and Mihail Sestakov	Stevo Bozinovski and Mihail Sestakov 斯蒂沃 · 博兹诺夫斯基和米哈伊尔 · 塞斯塔科夫

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Robotic aspects

机器人方面

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Mechanical construction

机械结构

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Electrical aspect

电气方面

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A level of programming

一定程度的程序设计

There are many types of robots; they are used in many different environments and for many different uses. Although being very diverse in application and form, they all share three basic similarities when it comes to their construction:

机器人有许多种类; 它们被用于许多不同的环境和不同的用途。虽然它们在应用和形式上非常多样，但在结构上都有三个基本相似之处:

Robots all have some kind of mechanical construction, a frame, form or shape designed to achieve a particular task. For example, a robot designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud, might use caterpillar tracks. The mechanical aspect is mostly the creator's solution to completing the assigned task and dealing with the physics of the environment around it. Form follows function.

Robots all have some kind of mechanical construction, a frame, form or shape designed to achieve a particular task. For example, a robot designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud, might use caterpillar tracks. The mechanical aspect is mostly the creator's solution to completing the assigned task and dealing with the physics of the environment around it. Form follows function.

所有的机器人都有某种机械结构，一个框架，形状或设计用来完成特定的任务。例如，一个被设计用来穿越厚重泥土或泥土的机器人，可能会使用履带。机械方面主要是创造者的解决方案，以完成分配的任务和处理周围环境的物理学。形式服从功能。

Robots have electrical components which power and control the machinery. For example, the robot with caterpillar tracks would need some kind of power to move the tracker treads. That power comes in the form of electricity, which will have to travel through a wire and originate from a battery, a basic electrical circuit. Even petrol powered machines that get their power mainly from petrol still require an electric current to start the combustion process which is why most petrol powered machines like cars, have batteries. The electrical aspect of robots is used for movement (through motors), sensing (where electrical signals are used to measure things like heat, sound, position, and energy status) and operation (robots need some level of electrical energy supplied to their motors and sensors in order to activate and perform basic operations)

Robots have electrical components which power and control the machinery. For example, the robot with caterpillar tracks would need some kind of power to move the tracker treads. That power comes in the form of electricity, which will have to travel through a wire and originate from a battery, a basic electrical circuit. Even petrol powered machines that get their power mainly from petrol still require an electric current to start the combustion process which is why most petrol powered machines like cars, have batteries. The electrical aspect of robots is used for movement (through motors), sensing (where electrical signals are used to measure things like heat, sound, position, and energy status) and operation (robots need some level of electrical energy supplied to their motors and sensors in order to activate and perform basic operations)

机器人有电子元件来驱动和控制机器。例如，带有履带的机器人需要某种能量来移动跟踪踏板。这种能量以电的形式存在，它必须通过一根导线，并且来自一个基本的电路---- 电池。即使是以汽油为动力的汽油动力机器仍然需要电流来启动燃烧过程，这就是为什么大多数汽油动力机器，如汽车，都有电池。机器人的电气方面用于移动(通过电机)、传感(电信号用于测量诸如热量、声音、位置和能量状态)和操作(机器人需要向其电机和传感器提供一定水平的电能，以便激活和执行基本操作)

All robots contain some level of computer programming code. A program is how a robot decides when or how to do something. In the caterpillar track example, a robot that needs to move across a muddy road may have the correct mechanical construction and receive the correct amount of power from its battery, but would not go anywhere without a program telling it to move. Programs are the core essence of a robot, it could have excellent mechanical and electrical construction, but if its program is poorly constructed its performance will be very poor (or it may not perform at all). There are three different types of robotic programs: remote control, artificial intelligence and hybrid. A robot with remote control programing has a preexisting set of commands that it will only perform if and when it receives a signal from a control source, typically a human being with a remote control. It is perhaps more appropriate to view devices controlled primarily by human commands as falling in the discipline of automation rather than robotics. Robots that use artificial intelligence interact with their environment on their own without a control source, and can determine reactions to objects and problems they encounter using their preexisting programming. Hybrid is a form of programming that incorporates both AI and RC functions.

All robots contain some level of computer programming code. A program is how a robot decides when or how to do something. In the caterpillar track example, a robot that needs to move across a muddy road may have the correct mechanical construction and receive the correct amount of power from its battery, but would not go anywhere without a program telling it to move. Programs are the core essence of a robot, it could have excellent mechanical and electrical construction, but if its program is poorly constructed its performance will be very poor (or it may not perform at all). There are three different types of robotic programs: remote control, artificial intelligence and hybrid. A robot with remote control programing has a preexisting set of commands that it will only perform if and when it receives a signal from a control source, typically a human being with a remote control. It is perhaps more appropriate to view devices controlled primarily by human commands as falling in the discipline of automation rather than robotics. Robots that use artificial intelligence interact with their environment on their own without a control source, and can determine reactions to objects and problems they encounter using their preexisting programming. Hybrid is a form of programming that incorporates both AI and RC functions.

所有的机器人都包含一定程度的计算机编程代码。程序是机器人如何决定何时或如何做某事的。在履带的例子中，一个需要在泥泞的道路上行走的机器人可能具有正确的机械结构并从电池中获得正确的电量，但是如果没有一个程序告诉它行走，它就不会去任何地方。程序是机器人的核心本质，它可以有优秀的机械和电气结构，但如果它的程序结构不好，它的性能将非常差(或者它可能根本不会执行)。有三种不同类型的机器人程序: 遥控，人工智能和混合动力。一个具有远程控制程序的机器人有一组预先存在的命令，只有当它接收到来自控制源的信号时才会执行这些命令，通常是一个具有远程控制的人。也许把主要由人类指令控制的设备视为属于自动化而不是机器人学的范畴更为合适。使用人工智能的机器人在没有控制源的情况下自己与周围环境进行交互，并且可以使用预先存在的编程来确定对遇到的物体和问题的反应。混合是一种形式的编程，包括人工智能和钢筋混凝土功能。

Applications

申请

As more and more robots are designed for specific tasks this method of classification becomes more relevant. For example, many robots are designed for assembly work, which may not be readily adaptable for other applications. They are termed as "assembly robots". For seam welding, some suppliers provide complete welding systems with the robot i.e. the welding equipment along with other material handling facilities like turntables, etc. as an integrated unit. Such an integrated robotic system is called a "welding robot" even though its discrete manipulator unit could be adapted to a variety of tasks. Some robots are specifically designed for heavy load manipulation, and are labeled as "heavy-duty robots".^[22]

As more and more robots are designed for specific tasks this method of classification becomes more relevant. For example, many robots are designed for assembly work, which may not be readily adaptable for other applications. They are termed as "assembly robots". For seam welding, some suppliers provide complete welding systems with the robot i.e. the welding equipment along with other material handling facilities like turntables, etc. as an integrated unit. Such an integrated robotic system is called a "welding robot" even though its discrete manipulator unit could be adapted to a variety of tasks. Some robots are specifically designed for heavy load manipulation, and are labeled as "heavy-duty robots".

随着越来越多的机器人被设计用于特定的任务，这种分类方法变得越来越重要。例如，许多机器人是为装配工作而设计的，这可能不适用于其他应用。它们被称为“装配机器人”。对于缝焊，一些供应商提供完整的机器人焊接系统。焊接设备以及其他物料搬运设备如转盘等。作为一个整体。这样一个集成的机器人系统被称为“焊接机器人” ，即使它的离散机械手单元可以适应各种任务。一些机器人是专门为重载操作设计的，并被标记为“重型机器人”。

文件:Atlas from boston dynamics.jpg

Atlas Robot a humanoid robot designed to aid emergency services in search and rescue operations

Atlas Robot a humanoid robot designed to aid emergency services in search and rescue operations]]

阿特拉斯机器人是一种类人机器人，设计用于帮助搜救行动中的紧急服务

Current and potential applications include:

目前和潜在的应用包括:

Military robots.

Industrial robots. Robots are increasingly used in manufacturing (since the 1960s). According to the Robotic Industries Association US data, in 2016 automotive industry was the main customer of industrial robots with 52% of total sales.^[23] In the auto industry, they can amount for more than half of the "labor". There are even "lights off" factories such as an IBM keyboard manufacturing factory in Texas that was fully automated as early as 2003.^[24]

Cobots (collaborative robots).^[25]

Construction robots. Construction robots can be separated into three types: traditional robots, robotic arm, and robotic exoskeleton.^[26]

Agricultural robots (AgRobots).^[27] The use of robots in agriculture is closely linked to the concept of AI-assisted precision agriculture and drone usage.^[28] 1996-1998 research also proved that robots can perform a herding task.^[29]

Medical robots of various types (such as da Vinci Surgical System and Hospi).

模板:AnchorKitchen automation. Commercial examples of kitchen automation are Flippy (burgers), Zume Pizza (pizza), Cafe X (coffee), Makr Shakr (cocktails), Frobot (frozen yogurts) and Sally (salads).^[30] Home examples are Rotimatic (flatbreads baking)^[31] and Boris (dishwasher loading).^[32]

Robot combat for sport – hobby or sport event where two or more robots fight in an arena to disable each other. This has developed from a hobby in the 1990s to several TV series worldwide.

Cleanup of contaminated areas, such as toxic waste or nuclear facilities.^[33]

Domestic robots.

Nanorobots.

Swarm robotics.^[34]

Autonomous drones.

Sports field line marking.

Components

组件

Power source

电源

模板:Further

文件:PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg

The InSight lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroom

The InSight lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroom

在[洞察着陆器与太阳能电池板部署在一个洁净室]

At present, mostly (lead–acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of batteries can be used as a power source for robots. They range from lead–acid batteries, which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver–cadmium batteries that are much smaller in volume and are currently much more expensive. Designing a battery-powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However, such designs are often mechanically complex and need a fuel, require heat dissipation and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This has the advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere. However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly having a cable connected to the robot, which can be difficult to manage.^[35] Potential power sources could be:

At present, mostly (lead–acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of batteries can be used as a power source for robots. They range from lead–acid batteries, which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver–cadmium batteries that are much smaller in volume and are currently much more expensive. Designing a battery-powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However, such designs are often mechanically complex and need a fuel, require heat dissipation and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This has the advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere. However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly having a cable connected to the robot, which can be difficult to manage. Potential power sources could be:

目前，大多数(铅酸)电池用作电源。许多不同类型的电池可以用作机器人的动力源。它们包括铅酸电池，这种电池是安全的，而且保质期相对较长，但与体积小得多、目前昂贵得多的银镉电池相比，这种电池相当沉重。设计一个电池供电的机器人需要考虑到诸如安全性、循环寿命和重量等因素。发电机，通常是某种类型的内燃机，也可以使用。然而，这样的设计往往机械复杂，需要燃料，需要散热和相对沉重。将机器人与电源连接起来的系绳会完全切断机器人的电源。这样做的好处是，通过将所有发电和存储部件转移到其他地方，可以节省重量和空间。然而，这种设计的确有一个缺点，那就是总是有一根电缆连接到机器人上，这很难管理。潜在的动力来源可以是:

pneumatic (compressed gases)

Solar power (using the sun's energy and converting it into electrical power)

hydraulics (liquids)

flywheel energy storage

organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)

nuclear

Actuation

驱动

文件:2005-11-14 ShadowLeg Finished medium.jpg

A robotic leg powered by air muscles

robotic leg powered by air muscles ]]

[空气肌肉驱动的机械腿]

Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement.^[36] By far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. There are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.

Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. There are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.

驱动器是机器人的“肌肉” ，是将储存的能量转化为运动的部件。到目前为止，最流行的驱动器是旋转轮子或齿轮的电动马达，以及控制工厂中工业机器人的线性驱动器。有一些最新的进展，在替代类型的执行机构，由电力，化学品，或压缩空气供电。

Electric motors

电动马达

The vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots or AC motors in industrial robots and CNC machines. These motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the predominant form of motion is rotational.

绝大多数机器人使用电动机，通常在便携式机器人中使用有刷和无刷直流电动机，或者在工业机器人和数控机床中使用交流电动机。这些电机往往是首选的系统与较轻的负荷，其中主要运动形式是旋转。

Linear actuators

直线驱动器

Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forces are needed such as with industrial robotics. They are typically powered by compressed and oxidized air (pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic actuator) Linear actuators can also be powered by electricity which usually consists of a motor and a leadscrew. Another common type is a mechanical linear actuator that is turned by hand, such as a rack and pinion on a car.

各种类型的线性驱动器进进出出，而不是通过旋转，而且往往有更快的方向变化，特别是当非常大的力量需要，如工业机器人。它们通常由压缩和氧化空气(气动致动器)或油(液压执行器)提供动力。线性执行器也可以由电力提供动力，通常由发动机和丝杠组成。另一种常见的类型是手动转动的机械直线驱动器，例如汽车上的齿轮齿条。

Series elastic actuators

系列弹性执行器

A flexure is designed as part of the motor actuator, to improve safety and provide robust force control, energy efficiency, shock absorption (mechanical filtering) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. The resultant lower reflected inertia can improve safety when a robot is interacting with humans or during collisions. It has been used in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots 引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 and walking humanoid robots.^[37]^[38]

发表于2016年1月26日•2016 IOP 出版公司 / ref 和可行走的人形机器人。

Air muscles

空气肌肉

Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are special tubes that expand(typically up to 40%) when air is forced inside them. They are used in some robot applications.^[39]^[40]^[41]

Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are special tubes that expand(typically up to 40%) when air is forced inside them. They are used in some robot applications.

气动人工肌肉，也被称为空气肌肉，是一种特殊的管子，当空气被挤压进去时，它就会膨胀(通常可达40%)。它们被用于一些机器人应用中。

Muscle wire

肌肉钢丝

Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, Nitinol® or Flexinol® wire, is a material which contracts (under 5%) when electricity is applied. They have been used for some small robot applications.^[42]^[43]

Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, Nitinol® or Flexinol® wire, is a material which contracts (under 5%) when electricity is applied. They have been used for some small robot applications.

肌肉线，也被称为形状记忆合金，Nitinol 或 Flexinol 线，是一种材料收缩(低于5%)时，用电。它们已被用于一些小型机器人应用。

Electroactive polymers

电活性聚合物

EAPs or EPAMs are a plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) from electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots,^[44] and to enable new robots to float,^[45] fly, swim or walk.^[46]

EAPs or EPAMs are a plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) from electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots, and to enable new robots to float, fly, swim or walk.

Eaps 或 epam 是一种塑料材料，可以通过电流大幅收缩(高达380% 的活化应变) ，并已被用于人形机器人的面部肌肉和手臂，使新型机器人能够漂浮、飞行、游泳或行走。

Piezo motors

压电电机

Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the motor in a circle or a straight line.^[47] Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrate or to drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force for their size.^[48] These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.^[49]^[50]

Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the motor in a circle or a straight line. Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrate or to drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force for their size. These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.

直流电机的最新替代品是压电电机或超声电机。这些工作基于一个完全不同的原理，即微小的压电陶瓷元件，每秒振动数千次，引起线性或旋转运动。有不同的运行机制，其中一种利用压电元件的振动使电机步进成圆形或直线。另一种类型使用压电元件引起螺母振动或驱动螺丝。这些电机的优点是纳米分辨率，速度和可用力的大小。这些电动机已经可以在市场上买到，并被用于一些机器人上。

Elastic nanotubes

弹性纳米管

模板:Further

Elastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technology in early-stage experimental development. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm³ for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.^[51]

Elastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technology in early-stage experimental development. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm³ for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.

弹性纳米管是一种很有发展前途的人工肌肉技术。碳纳米管中没有缺陷，使得这些纤维的弹性变形达到几个百分点，对于金属纳米管来说，其储能水平可能达到10 j / cm × 3 / sup。人类的二头肌可以用这种材料制成的直径8毫米的金属丝代替。这种紧凑的“肌肉”可能使未来的机器人超越人类。

Sensing

感应

Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks, and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate the appropriate response. They are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety or malfunctions, and to provide real-time information of the task it is performing.

传感器允许机器人接收有关某种测量环境或内部组件的信息。这对于机器人执行它们的任务，并根据环境的任何变化采取行动来计算适当的响应是必不可少的。它们用于各种形式的测量，给机器人关于安全或故障的警告，并提供它正在执行的任务的实时信息。

Touch

触摸

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips.^[52]^[53] The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips. The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.

目前机器人和假肢手接收的触觉信息远远少于人手。最近的研究已经开发出一种触觉传感器阵列，模仿人类指尖的机械特性和触觉感受器。该传感器阵列构造为一个刚性核心周围的传导流体所包含的弹性皮肤。电极安装在刚性磁芯的表面，并连接到磁芯内的阻抗测量装置。当人造皮肤接触到物体时，电极周围的流体路径发生变形，产生的阻抗变化映射了来自物体的力。研究人员预计，这种人造指尖的一个重要功能将是调整机器人抓住物体。

Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.^[54]

Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.

来自几个欧洲国家和以色列的科学家在2009年开发了一种叫做 SmartHand 的假手，它的功能和真手一样，病人可以用它写字、敲键盘、弹钢琴和做其他精细的动作。假肢带有传感器，使患者能够感受到指尖的真实感觉。

Vision

愿景

Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences and views from cameras.

计算机视觉是机器视觉的科学和技术。作为一门科学，计算机视觉涉及到从图像中提取信息的人工系统背后的理论。图像数据可以采用多种形式，如视频序列和摄像机视图。

In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.

在大多数实际的计算机视觉应用中，计算机被预先编程以解决特定的任务，但是基于学习的方法现在正变得越来越普遍。

Computer vision systems rely on image sensors which detect electromagnetic radiation which is typically in the form of either visible light or infra-red light. The sensors are designed using solid-state physics. The process by which light propagates and reflects off surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots can also be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of depth in the environment. Like human eyes, robots' "eyes" must also be able to focus on a particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations in light intensities.

计算机视觉系统依靠图像传感器来探测电磁辐射，电磁辐射通常以可见光或红外光的形式存在。传感器是使用固体物理学设计的。光在表面上传播和反射的过程用光学来解释。复杂的图像传感器甚至需要量子力学来提供对图像形成过程的完整理解。机器人还可以配备多个视觉传感器，以便更好地计算环境中的深度感。就像人类的眼睛一样，机器人的“眼睛”也必须能够专注于特定的感兴趣的区域，并且能够适应光强的变化。

There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology.

在计算机视觉中有一个子领域，人工系统被设计来模拟生物系统的处理和行为，在不同的复杂程度上。此外，一些在计算机视觉中开发的基于学习的方法有它们的生物学背景。

Other

其他

Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar, radar, and sonar^[55]. Lidar measures distance to a target by illuminating the target with laser light and measuring the reflected light with a sensor. Radar uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. Sonar uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water.

Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar, radar, and sonar. Lidar measures distance to a target by illuminating the target with laser light and measuring the reflected light with a sensor. Radar uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. Sonar uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water.

其他常见的机器人传感形式使用激光雷达、雷达和声纳。激光雷达通过用激光照射目标并用传感器测量反射光来测量到目标的距离。雷达使用无线电波来确定物体的距离、角度或速度。声纳利用声音传播来导航，与水面上或水下的物体进行通信或探测。

Manipulation

操纵

文件:Automation of foundry with robot.jpg

KUKA industrial robot operating in a foundry

[库卡工业机器人在铸造厂工作]

文件:Puma Robotic Arm - GPN-2000-001817.jpg

Puma, one of the first industrial robots

彪马，最早的工业机器人之一

文件:Caught Coding (9690512888).jpg

Baxter, a modern and versatile industrial robot developed by Rodney Brooks

巴克斯特是[罗德尼 · 布鲁克斯]开发的一种现代化、多用途的工业机器人

模板:Further

Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the "hands" of a robot are often referred to as end effectors,^[56] while the "arm" is referred to as a manipulator.^[57] Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example, a humanoid hand.^[58]

Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the "hands" of a robot are often referred to as end effectors, while the "arm" is referred to as a manipulator. Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example, a humanoid hand.

机器人需要操纵物体，拾取，修改，破坏，或者有其他效果。因此，机器人的“手”通常被称为末端执行器，而“手臂”则被称为机械手。大多数机器人手臂都有可更换的效应器，每一个都可以执行一些小范围的任务。有些机器人有一个无法替换的固定机械手，而少数机器人有一个非常通用的机械手，例如人形手。

Mechanical grippers

机械夹具

One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In its simplest manifestation, it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. Fingers can for example, be made of a chain with a metal wire run through it.^[59] Hands that resemble and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand and the Robonaut hand.^[60] Hands that are of a mid-level complexity include the Delft hand.^[61]^[62] Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place, using less friction.

One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In its simplest manifestation, it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. Fingers can for example, be made of a chain with a metal wire run through it. Hands that resemble and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand and the Robonaut hand. Hands that are of a mid-level complexity include the Delft hand. Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place, using less friction.

最常见的效应之一是手爪。在它最简单的表现形式中，它仅仅由两个手指组成，这两个手指可以张开和合拢，拿起和放开一系列的小物体。例如，手指可以由金属线穿过的链条制成。像人手一样工作的手包括阴影之手和机器宇航员之手。复杂程度处于中等水平的指针包括代尔夫特指针。机械爪可以有各种类型，包括摩擦和包括颌骨。摩擦钳利用手爪的全部力量，通过摩擦力将物体固定在适当的位置。围绕颌骨摇篮的对象在适当的地方，使用较少的摩擦。

Vacuum grippers

Vacuum grippers are very simple astrictive^[63] devices that can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.

Vacuum grippers are very simple astrictive devices that can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.

真空抓取器是一种非常简单的抓取装置，只要抓取表面足够光滑以确保吸力，它就可以承受非常大的负荷。

Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, often use very simple vacuum grippers.

挑选和放置机器人用于电子元件和大型物体，如汽车挡风玻璃，通常使用非常简单的真空夹具。

General purpose effectors

通用效应器

Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS,^[64] and the Schunk hand.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 These are highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors.^[65]

}}</ref> These are highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors.

这些是非常灵巧的机械手，有多达20个自由度和数百个触觉传感器。

Locomotion

运动

Rolling robots

滚动机器人

文件:Segway 01.JPG

Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya

Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya]]

[名古屋机器人博物馆里的赛格威]

For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels or a number of continuous tracks. Some researchers have tried to create more complex wheeled robots with only one or two wheels. These can have certain advantages such as greater efficiency and reduced parts, as well as allowing a robot to navigate in confined places that a four-wheeled robot would not be able to.

为了简单起见，大多数移动机器人都有四个轮子或许多连续的轨道。一些研究人员试图创造出只有一个或两个轮子的更复杂的轮式机器人。这些技术具有某些优点，比如更高的效率和更小的部件，以及允许机器人在四轮机器人无法到达的狭小空间里导航。

Two-wheeled balancing robots

两轮平衡机器人

Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robot is falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the same direction, to counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second, based on the dynamics of an inverted pendulum.^[66] Many different balancing robots have been designed.^[67] While the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (Robotic Mobility Platform). An example of this use has been as NASA's Robonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.^[68]

Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robot is falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the same direction, to counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second, based on the dynamics of an inverted pendulum. Many different balancing robots have been designed. While the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (Robotic Mobility Platform). An example of this use has been as NASA's Robonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.

平衡机器人通常使用陀螺仪来检测机器人下落的程度，然后根据可倒摆法的动力学原理，按比例将车轮推向同一方向，以每秒数百次的速度抵消掉落的影响。设计了多种不同的平衡机器人。虽然赛格威通常不被认为是一个机器人，但是它可以被认为是一个机器人的组成部分，当使用这样的赛格威时，它们被称为 RMP (机器人移动平台)。这方面的一个例子就是安装在赛格威上的 NASA 机器宇航员。

One-wheeled balancing robots

单轮平衡机器人

A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two-wheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one-wheeled balancing robots have been designed recently, such as Carnegie Mellon University's "Ballbot" that is the approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku Gakuin University's "BallIP".^[69] Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with people.^[70]

A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two-wheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one-wheeled balancing robots have been designed recently, such as Carnegie Mellon University's "Ballbot" that is the approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku Gakuin University's "BallIP". Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with people.

单轮平衡机器人是两轮平衡机器人的延伸，因此它可以使用一个圆球作为它唯一的轮子在任何2D 方向移动。一些单轮平衡机器人最近已经被设计出来，比如卡内基梅隆大学的“球形机器人” ，这是一个人的近似高度和宽度，还有东北学院大学的“ BallIP”。由于其长而薄的外形和在狭小空间内的机动能力，它们比其他机器人在有人的环境中更好地发挥作用。

Spherical orb robots

球形机器人

Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning a weight inside the ball,^[71]^[72] or by rotating the outer shells of the sphere.^[73]^[74] These have also been referred to as an orb bot^[75] or a ball bot.^[76]^[77]

Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning a weight inside the ball, or by rotating the outer shells of the sphere. These have also been referred to as an orb bot or a ball bot.

人们已经对完全在球体内的机器人进行了几次尝试，可以是在球体内旋转一个重物，也可以是旋转球体的外壳。这些机器人也被称为球形机器人或球形机器人。

Six-wheeled robots

六轮机器人

Using six wheels instead of four wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain such as on rocky dirt or grass.

使用六个轮子而不是四个轮子可以提供更好的牵引力或抓地力在户外地形，如在岩土或草地。

Tracked robots

文件:Foster-Miller TALON SWORDS.jpg

TALON military robots used by the United States Army

TALON military robots used by the United States Army]]

美国陆军使用的 TALON 军用机器人]

Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six-wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore are very common for outdoor and military robots, where the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are difficult to use indoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA's Urban Robot "Urbie".^[78]

Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six-wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore are very common for outdoor and military robots, where the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are difficult to use indoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA's Urban Robot "Urbie".

坦克履带比六轮机器人提供更多的牵引力。履带式车轮看起来像是由数百个轮子组成的，因此在户外和军事机器人中很常见，机器人必须在非常崎岖的地形上行驶。然而，它们很难在室内使用，例如在地毯和光滑的地板上。例子包括美国宇航局的城市机器人“ Urbie”。

Walking applied to robots

行走应用于机器人

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however, none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. There has been much study on human inspired walking, such as AMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M University.^[79] Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to these robots being significantly easier to construct.^[80]^[81] Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which would provide better mobility and energy efficiency than other locomotion methods. Typically, robots on two legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however, none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. There has been much study on human inspired walking, such as AMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M University. Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to these robots being significantly easier to construct. Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which would provide better mobility and energy efficiency than other locomotion methods. Typically, robots on two legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

行走是一个难以解决的动态问题。人们已经制造出了几个可以靠两条腿走路的机器人，然而，还没有一个机器人像人一样强壮。关于人类灵感行走的研究已经很多了，比如2008年由德州农工大学机械工程系建立的 AMBER 实验室。许多其他的机器人已经被制造出用两条以上的腿行走，因为这些机器人明显更容易制造。步行机器人可以在不平坦的地形上行走，比其他运动方式具有更好的机动性和能量效率。通常情况下，两条腿的机器人可以在平坦的地面上行走，偶尔也能走上楼梯。没有人能走过崎岖不平的地形。已经尝试的一些方法是:

ZMP technique

Zmp 技术

The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over).^[82] However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory.^[83]^[84]^[85] ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.

The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over). However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory. ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.

零力矩点(ZMP)是本田 ASIMO 等机器人使用的算法。机器人的机载计算机试图保持总惯性力(地球的重力和步行的加速度和减速度的组合)与地面反作用力(地面反作用力对机器人脚的反作用力)完全相反。这样，两个力相互抵消，没有留下任何时刻(使机器人旋转和倒下的力)。然而，这并不完全是一个人走路的方式，对于人类观察者来说，差别是显而易见的，其中一些人指出，ASIMO 走路的样子就像它需要洗手间一样。Asimo 的步行算法不是静态的，并且使用了一些动态平衡(见下文)。然而，它仍然需要一个光滑的表面上行走。

Hopping

跳

Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.^[86] Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.^[87] A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.^[88] For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.^[89]

Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself. Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults. A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound. For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.

麻省理工学院腿部实验室的马克 · 雷伯特在20世纪80年代制造了几个机器人，成功地展示了非常动态的行走。最初，一个只有一条腿的机器人和一只非常小的脚可以通过简单的跳跃来保持直立。这个动作和一个人踩着弹簧高跷的动作是一样的。当机器人向一边倒下时，它会朝那个方向轻微地跳跃，以便抓住自己。很快，这个算法就被推广到了两条腿和四条腿。一个双足机器人被演示为奔跑甚至翻筋斗。四足动物也被证明可以小跑、奔跑、步伐和跳跃。有关这些机器人的完整列表，请参阅麻省理工学院腿部实验机器人页面。

Dynamic balancing (controlled falling)

动平衡(可控下落)

A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability.^[90] This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot,^[91] which is so stable, it can even jump.^[92] Another example is the TU Delft Flame.

A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability. This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot, which is so stable, it can even jump. Another example is the TU Delft Flame.

对于机器人来说，一种更先进的行走方式是使用动态平衡算法，这种算法可能比零力矩点技术更加稳健，因为它不断地监视机器人的运动，并且放置双脚以保持稳定。最近，Anybots 的 Dexter 机器人演示了这项技术，它非常稳定，甚至可以跳跃。另一个例子是代尔夫特火焰。

Passive dynamics

被动动力学

Perhaps the most promising approach utilizes passive dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is used for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签^[93]^[94]

|title=A bipedal walking robot with efficient and human-like gait|booktitle=Proc. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.}}</ref>

双足行走机器人具有高效率和类似人的步态。Ieee 机器人与自动化国际会议。{} / ref

Other methods of locomotion

其他运动方式

Flying

飞行

文件:Robosnakes.jpg

Two robot snakes. Left one has 64 motors (with 2 degrees of freedom per segment), the right one 10.

两条机器蛇。左边一个有64个马达(每段有2个自由度) ，右边一个10。

A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing.^[95] Other flying robots are uninhabited and are known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human pilot on board, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, and the Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as the Air Penguin, Air Ray, and Air Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guided by sonar.

A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing. Other flying robots are uninhabited and are known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human pilot on board, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, and the Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as the Air Penguin, Air Ray, and Air Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guided by sonar.

现代客机本质上就是一个飞行机器人，由两个人来管理它。自动驾驶仪可以控制飞机的每个阶段的旅程，包括起飞，正常飞行，甚至着陆。其他飞行机器人无人居住，被称为无人驾驶飞行器(uav)。它们可以在无人驾驶的情况下变得更小、更轻，并且可以飞入危险区域执行军事侦察任务。有些甚至可以向指挥下的目标开火。无人机也正在开发，它可以自动射击目标，而不需要一个人的命令。其他飞行机器人包括巡航导弹、昆虫战机和爱普生微型直升机机器人。企鹅航空、雷航空和果冻航空等机器人的身体比空气还轻，由桨推进，并由声纳引导。

Snaking

蛇

Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings.^[96] The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot^[97] can even navigate both on land and in water.^[98]

Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings. The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot can even navigate both on land and in water.

已成功地研制出几种蛇形机器人。这些机器人模仿真蛇移动的方式，可以在非常狭窄的空间里行走，这意味着有一天它们可能会被用来搜寻被困在倒塌建筑物中的人们。日本的 ACM-R5蛇形机器人甚至可以在陆地和水中导航。

Skating

滑冰

A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skating device. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll.^[99] Another robot, Plen, can use a miniature skateboard or roller-skates, and skate across a desktop.^[100]

A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skating device. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll. Another robot, Plen, can use a miniature skateboard or roller-skates, and skate across a desktop.

目前已研制出少量的溜冰机器人，其中一种是多模式行走和溜冰装置。它有四条腿，带有无动力的轮子，可以移动也可以滚动。另一个叫 Plen 的机器人可以使用微型滑板或者旱冰鞋，在桌面上滑行。

文件:Capuchin Free Climbing Robot.jpg

Capuchin, a climbing robot

僧帽猴，一个攀爬机器人

Climbing

攀登

Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage. An example of this is Capuchin,^[101] built by Dr. Ruixiang Zhang at Stanford University, California. Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass. Examples of this approach include Wallbot^[102] and Stickybot.^[103] China's Technology Daily reported on November 15, 2008, that Dr. Li Hiu Yeung and his research group of New Concept Aircraft (Zhuhai) Co., Ltd. had successfully developed a bionic gecko robot named "Speedy Freelander". According to Dr. Li, the gecko robot could rapidly climb up and down a variety of building walls, navigate through ground and wall fissures, and walk upside-down on the ceiling. It was also able to adapt to the surfaces of smooth glass, rough, sticky or dusty walls as well as various types of metallic materials. It could also identify and circumvent obstacles automatically. Its flexibility and speed were comparable to a natural gecko. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing a pole.^[55]

Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage. An example of this is Capuchin, built by Dr. Ruixiang Zhang at Stanford University, California. Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass. Examples of this approach include Wallbot and Stickybot. China's Technology Daily reported on November 15, 2008, that Dr. Li Hiu Yeung and his research group of New Concept Aircraft (Zhuhai) Co., Ltd. had successfully developed a bionic gecko robot named "Speedy Freelander". According to Dr. Li, the gecko robot could rapidly climb up and down a variety of building walls, navigate through ground and wall fissures, and walk upside-down on the ceiling. It was also able to adapt to the surfaces of smooth glass, rough, sticky or dusty walls as well as various types of metallic materials. It could also identify and circumvent obstacles automatically. Its flexibility and speed were comparable to a natural gecko. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing a pole.

几种不同的方法已经被用于开发能够攀爬垂直表面的机器人。一种方法是模仿人类攀岩者在有突起的墙上的动作，调整重心，依次移动四肢以获得杠杆作用。这方面的一个例子是嘉布遣，由加利福尼亚斯坦福大学的张博士建造。另一种方法是使用特殊的脚趾垫爬壁虎的方法，这种方法可以在光滑的表面如垂直的玻璃上运行。这种方法的例子包括 Wallbot 和 Stickybot。中国科技日报2008年11月15日报道，新概念飞机(珠海)有限公司的李晓阳博士和他的研究小组成功研制出一种仿生壁虎机器人，名为“飞速神行者”。据李博士介绍，壁虎机器人可以在各种建筑墙壁上快速爬上爬下，穿过地面和墙壁的裂缝，并在天花板上倒立行走。它也能适应表面光滑的玻璃，粗糙，粘性或灰尘墙壁以及各种类型的金属材料。它还可以自动识别和规避障碍。它的灵活性和速度堪比天然的壁虎。第三种方法是模仿蛇爬杆的动作。

Swimming (Piscine)

游泳(鱼)

It is calculated that when swimming some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.^[104] Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copy this type of locomotion.^[105] Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic Fish G9,^[106] and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion.^[107] The Aqua Penguin,^[108] designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front "flippers" of penguins. Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion of manta ray, and jellyfish, respectively.

It is calculated that when swimming some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%. Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copy this type of locomotion. Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic Fish G9, and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion. The Aqua Penguin, designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front "flippers" of penguins. Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion of manta ray, and jellyfish, respectively.

据计算，某些鱼类在游泳时可以达到大于90% 的推进效率。此外，他们可以加速和机动远远优于任何人造船或潜水艇，并产生较少的噪音和水的干扰。因此，许多研究水下机器人的研究人员都想模仿这种运动方式。值得注意的例子有埃塞克斯大学计算机科学机器鱼 G9，以及田野机器人研究所制造的金枪鱼机器人，它们可以分析和数学模拟金枪鱼的运动。水上企鹅由德国费斯托(Festo)设计制造，模仿企鹅前鳍的流线型外形和推进力。费斯托也制造了 Aqua Ray 和 Aqua Jelly，分别模仿了蝠鲼和水母的运动方式。

文件:ISplash Robotic Fish.jpg

Robotic Fish: iSplash-II

Robotic Fish: iSplash-II

机器鱼: iSplash-II

In 2014 iSplash-II was developed by PhD student Richard James Clapham and Prof. Huosheng Hu at Essex University. It was the first robotic fish capable of outperforming real carangiform fish in terms of average maximum velocity (measured in body lengths/ second) and endurance, the duration that top speed is maintained.^[109] This build attained swimming speeds of 11.6BL/s (i.e. 3.7 m/s).^[110] The first build, iSplash-I (2014) was the first robotic platform to apply a full-body length carangiform swimming motion which was found to increase swimming speed by 27% over the traditional approach of a posterior confined waveform.^[111]

In 2014 iSplash-II was developed by PhD student Richard James Clapham and Prof. Huosheng Hu at Essex University. It was the first robotic fish capable of outperforming real carangiform fish in terms of average maximum velocity (measured in body lengths/ second) and endurance, the duration that top speed is maintained. This build attained swimming speeds of 11.6BL/s (i.e. 3.7 m/s). The first build, iSplash-I (2014) was the first robotic platform to apply a full-body length carangiform swimming motion which was found to increase swimming speed by 27% over the traditional approach of a posterior confined waveform.

2014年，艾塞克斯大学的博士生理查德 · 詹姆斯 · 克拉珀姆和胡教授开发了 iSplash-II。这是第一条在平均最大速度(以身体长度 / 秒计算)和耐力(保持最高速度的持续时间)方面表现优于真正的腕状鱼的机器鱼。这个身材达到了11.6 bl / s 的游泳速度。每秒3.7米)。第一个机器人平台 iSplash-I (2014年)是第一个应用全身长度腕状游泳运动的机器人平台，这种运动被发现比传统的后侧受限波形方法提高了27% 的游泳速度。

Sailing

帆船运动

文件:Vaimosluc.jpg

The autonomous sailboat robot Vaimos

The autonomous sailboat robot Vaimos

自动帆船机器人Vaimos

Sailboat robots have also been developed in order to make measurements at the surface of the ocean. A typical sailboat robot is Vaimos引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 built by IFREMER and ENSTA-Bretagne. Since the propulsion of sailboat robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries is only used for the computer, for the communication and for the actuators (to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is equipped with solar panels, the robot could theoretically navigate forever. The two main competitions of sailboat robots are WRSC, which takes place every year in Europe, and Sailbot.

year=2012|title=An interval approach for stability analysis; Application to sailboat robotics|journal=IEEE Transactions on Robotics|volume=27|issue=5|url=http://www.ensta-bretagne.fr/jaulin/paper_checking.pdf}}</ref> built by IFREMER and ENSTA-Bretagne. Since the propulsion of sailboat robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries is only used for the computer, for the communication and for the actuators (to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is equipped with solar panels, the robot could theoretically navigate forever. The two main competitions of sailboat robots are WRSC, which takes place every year in Europe, and Sailbot.

2012年 | 标题稳定性分析的区间方法; 帆船机器人应用 | IEEE 机器人学会刊 | 第27卷 | 第5期 | url http://www.ENSTA-Bretagne.fr/jaulin/paper_checking.pdf } / ref 由 IFREMER 和 ENSTA-Bretagne 构建。由于帆船机器人的推进使用风力，电池的能量只用于计算机、通信和执行器(调整舵和帆)。如果机器人装备了太阳能电池板，理论上它可以永远航行。帆船机器人的两个主要竞争对手是每年在欧洲举行的 wrc 和[ http://www.Sailbot.org/ 帆船机器人]。

Environmental interaction and navigation

环境相互作用和导航

文件:ElementBlack2.jpg

Radar, GPS, and lidar, are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge)

雷达，[全球定位系统和激光雷达，全部结合起来，提供适当的导航和避障(车辆开发为2007年美国国防部高级研究计划局城市挑战)]

模板:Unreferenced section

Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are either human controlled or operate in a static environment, there is an increasing interest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require some combination of navigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular, unforeseen events (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as ASIMO and Meinü robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Also, self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing the environment well and subsequently making navigational decisions based on this information, including by a swarm of autonomous robots.^[34] Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, along with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory data such as lidar, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints.

Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are either human controlled or operate in a static environment, there is an increasing interest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require some combination of navigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular, unforeseen events (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as ASIMO and Meinü robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Also, self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing the environment well and subsequently making navigational decisions based on this information, including by a swarm of autonomous robots. Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, along with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory data such as lidar, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints.

虽然目前投入使用的机器人中有很大一部分是由人控制的，或者是在静态环境中工作的，但是人们对能够在动态环境中自主操作的机器人的兴趣正在增加。这些机器人需要一些导航硬件和软件的组合，以便通过他们的环境。尤其是不可预见的事件(例如:。人和其他非静止的障碍物)可能会引起问题或碰撞。一些高度先进的机器人，如 ASIMO 和 mein robot，拥有特别好的机器人导航硬件和软件。此外，自控汽车，恩斯特 · 迪克曼斯的无人驾驶汽车，以及参加美国国防部高级研究计划局大挑战赛的项目，都能够很好地感知环境，并随后根据这些信息做出导航决策，包括一群自动机器人。这些机器人大多使用带有路标的 GPS 导航设备和雷达，有时还结合其他感官数据，如激光雷达、摄像机和惯性导航系统，以便更好地在路标之间进行导航。

Human-robot interaction

人机互动

文件:Kismet-IMG 6007-gradient.jpg

Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.

Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.]]

Kismet 可以产生一系列的面部表情。]]

The state of the art in sensory intelligence for robots will have to progress through several orders of magnitude if we want the robots working in our homes to go beyond vacuum-cleaning the floors. If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C-3PO, or Data of Star Trek, Next Generation.

如果我们想让机器人在我们的家里工作，而不仅仅是用真空吸尘器清洁地板，那么机器人感知智能的最先进技术就必须经历几个数量级的发展。如果机器人要在家庭和其他非工业环境中有效地工作，它们被指示执行工作的方式，尤其是如何被告知停止工作，将是至关重要的。与他们交互的人可能很少或根本没有受过机器人技术培训，因此任何界面都需要非常直观。科幻小说的作者通常认为，机器人最终将能够通过语言、手势和面部表情与人类交流，而不是命令行界面。虽然说话是人类最自然的交流方式，但对机器人来说却是不自然的。要让机器人像《星际迷航》中虚构的 C-3PO 或者《下一代》中的 Data 那样自然地互动，可能还需要很长时间。

Speech recognition

语音识别

Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech.^[112] The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent.^[113] Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952.^[114] Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.^[115] With the help of artificial intelligence, machines nowadays can use people's voice to identify their emotions such as satisfied or angry^[116]

Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952. Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%. With the help of artificial intelligence, machines nowadays can use people's voice to identify their emotions such as satisfied or angry

对于计算机来说，实时解释人类发出的连续声音流是一项困难的任务，主要是因为语音的巨大变异性。同一个词，由同一个人说，可能听起来不同取决于局部声学，音量，前一个词，是否说话人有感冒，等等。 .如果说话人有不同的口音，那就更难了。尽管如此，自从戴维斯、比杜尔夫和巴拉舍克在1952年设计了第一个“语音输入系统” ，能够识别“单个用户以100% 准确率说出的10个数字”以来，这个领域已经取得了长足的进步。目前，最好的系统可以识别连续的，自然的语音，高达每分钟160个单词，准确率达到95% 。借助于人工智能，机器现在可以用人的声音来识别他们的情绪，如满意或生气

Robotic voice

机器人的声音

Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium,^[117] making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques.^[118]^[119] An advantage of diphonic branching is the emotion that the robot is programmed to project, can be carried on the voice tape, or phoneme, already pre-programmed onto the voice media. One of the earliest examples is a teaching robot named leachim developed in 1974 by Michael J. Freeman.^[120]^[121] Leachim was able to convert digital memory to rudimentary verbal speech on pre-recorded computer discs.^[122] It was programmed to teach students in The Bronx, New York.^[122]

Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium, making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques. An advantage of diphonic branching is the emotion that the robot is programmed to project, can be carried on the voice tape, or phoneme, already pre-programmed onto the voice media. One of the earliest examples is a teaching robot named leachim developed in 1974 by Michael J. Freeman. Leachim was able to convert digital memory to rudimentary verbal speech on pre-recorded computer discs. It was programmed to teach students in The Bronx, New York.

当允许机器人使用语音与人类互动时，还存在其他障碍。出于社会原因，合成语音作为一种通信媒介被证明是次优的，因此有必要通过各种技术来开发机器人语音的情感部分。复调分支的一个优势是，机器人被编程投射的情感，可以通过语音磁带或音素进行，已经预先编程到语音媒体。最早的例子之一是迈克尔 · j · 弗里曼在1974年开发的教学机器人 leachim。利希姆能够将数字存储器转换成预先录制好的电脑光盘上的简单口语。它是用来教纽约布朗克斯区的学生的。

Gestures

手势

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One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. In both of these cases, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots.^[123] A great many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures.^[124]

One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. In both of these cases, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots. A great many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures.

你可以想象，在未来，向机器人厨师解释如何制作糕点，或者向机器人警官询问方向。在这两种情况下，做手势将有助于口头描述。在第一种情况下，机器人将识别人类的手势，并可能重复这些手势以便确认。在第二种情况下，机器人警官会用手势表示“沿着路走，然后右转”。很可能手势将构成人类和机器人之间互动的一部分。人们已经开发出许多系统来识别人类的手势。

Facial expression

面部表情

模板:Further

Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos).^[125] The coating and servos are built on a metal skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi^[126] can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.^[127]

Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos). The coating and servos are built on a metal skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.

面部表情可以为两个人之间对话的进程提供快速反馈，并且很快就可以为人类和机器人做同样的事情。机器人脸由汉森机器人公司利用他们的名为 Frubber 的弹性聚合物制造，由于橡胶面部涂层的弹性和内嵌的次表层马达(servos) ，机器人可以做出大量的面部表情。涂层和伺服系统是建立在一个金属头骨。机器人应该知道如何接近人类，通过他们的面部表情和肢体语言来判断。这个人是快乐的，害怕的，还是看起来疯狂的影响着机器人期望的交互类型。同样地，像 Kismet 这样的机器人以及最近增加的机器人，Nexi 可以产生一系列的面部表情，允许它与人类进行有意义的社会交流。

Artificial emotions

人为的情感

Artificial emotions can also be generated, composed of a sequence of facial expressions and/or gestures. As can be seen from the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the programming of these artificial emotions is complex and requires a large amount of human observation. To simplify this programming in the movie, presets were created together with a special software program. This decreased the amount of time needed to make the film. These presets could possibly be transferred for use in real-life robots.

人工情感也可以产生，由一系列面部表情和 / 或手势组成。从电影《最终幻想: 内在的精神》中可以看出，这些人工情感的编程是复杂的，需要大量的人类观察。为了简化电影中的编程，预设与一个特殊的软件程序一起创建。这减少了制作电影所需的时间。这些预置可能会被转移到现实生活中的机器人中使用。

Personality

个性

Many of the robots of science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future.^[128] Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality:^[129]^[130] i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.^[131]

Many of the robots of science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future. Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality: i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.

许多科幻小说中的机器人都有自己的个性，这在未来的商业机器人中可能是可取的，也可能不是。然而，研究人员正试图创造出具有人格特征的机器人:。他们使用声音，面部表情和肢体语言，试图传达一种内在状态，可能是喜悦，悲伤，或恐惧。一个商业上的例子是 Pleo，一个玩具机器恐龙，它可以表现出几种明显的情绪。

Social Intelligence

社交智能

The Socially Intelligent Machines Lab of the Georgia Institute of Technology researches new concepts of guided teaching interaction with robots. The aim of the projects is a social robot that learns task and goals from human demonstrations without prior knowledge of high-level concepts. These new concepts are grounded from low-level continuous sensor data through unsupervised learning, and task goals are subsequently learned using a Bayesian approach. These concepts can be used to transfer knowledge to future tasks, resulting in faster learning of those tasks. The results are demonstrated by the robot Curi who can scoop some pasta from a pot onto a plate and serve the sauce on top.^[132]

The Socially Intelligent Machines Lab of the Georgia Institute of Technology researches new concepts of guided teaching interaction with robots. The aim of the projects is a social robot that learns task and goals from human demonstrations without prior knowledge of high-level concepts. These new concepts are grounded from low-level continuous sensor data through unsupervised learning, and task goals are subsequently learned using a Bayesian approach. These concepts can be used to transfer knowledge to future tasks, resulting in faster learning of those tasks. The results are demonstrated by the robot Curi who can scoop some pasta from a pot onto a plate and serve the sauce on top.

佐治亚理工学院的社会智能机器实验室研究了引导式教学与机器人互动的新概念。该项目的目标是一个社会机器人学习的任务和目标从人类演示没有高层次的概念知识。这些新的概念是基于低水平的连续传感器数据通过非监督式学习，任务目标随后学习使用贝叶斯方法。这些概念可以用来将知识转化为未来的任务，从而加快这些任务的学习速度。机器人 Curi 可以从锅里舀出一些意大利面放在盘子上，然后在上面放上酱汁。

Control

控制

文件:Magnus B. Egerstedt puppet.jpg

Puppet Magnus, a robot-manipulated marionette with complex control systems.

[[傀儡马格纳斯，一个具有复杂控制系统的机器人操纵木偶]。]

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RuBot II can manually resolve Rubik's cubes.

[ RuBot II 可以手动解析魔方]

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The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks. The control of a robot involves three distinct phases – perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms). Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector). This information is then processed to be stored or transmitted and to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical.

机器人的机械结构必须受到控制才能执行任务。机器人的控制包括三个不同的阶段——感知、处理和动作(机器人范式)。传感器提供有关环境或机器人本身的信息(例如:。其关节的位置或其末端执行器)。然后处理这些信息，以便储存或传输，并计算出适当的信号，以驱动器(马达)移动机械。

The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands. Sensor fusion may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction) is inferred from these estimates. Techniques from control theory convert the task into commands that drive the actuators.

处理阶段的复杂程度有所不同。在反应级别，它可以将原始的传感器信息直接转换为执行器命令。传感器融合可以首先用于估计感兴趣的参数(例如:。机器人手爪的位置)从嘈杂的传感器数据。根据这些估计可以推断出一个直接的任务(例如向某个方向移动手爪)。来自控制理论的技术将任务转换成驱动执行器的命令。

At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build and reason with a "cognitive" model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot, the world, and how they interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to track objects. Mapping techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how to act. For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.

在更长的时间范围内或者执行更复杂的任务时，机器人可能需要建立一个“认知”模型并进行推理。认知模型试图表现机器人、世界以及它们如何相互作用。模式识别和计算机视觉可以用来跟踪目标。地图技术可以用来绘制世界地图。最后，运动规划和其他人工智能技术可能被用来指出如何行动。例如，一个计划者可能会想出如何在没有碰到障碍、摔倒等情况下完成一项任务。

Autonomy levels

自治水平

文件:TOPIO 3.jpg

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo IREX 2009.^[133]

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo IREX 2009.

Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy.

控制系统也可能具有不同程度的自主性。

Direct interaction is used for haptic or teleoperated devices, and the human has nearly complete control over the robot's motion.

Direct interaction is used for haptic or teleoperated devices, and the human has nearly complete control over the robot's motion.

直接交互用于触觉或遥控设备，人类几乎完全控制机器人的运动。

Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out how to achieve them ^[134].

Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out how to achieve them .

操作员辅助模式让操作员指挥中高级任务，机器人自动找到完成这些任务的方法。

An autonomous robot may go without human interaction for extended periods of time . Higher levels of autonomy do not necessarily require more complex cognitive capabilities. For example, robots in assembly plants are completely autonomous but operate in a fixed pattern.

An autonomous robot may go without human interaction for extended periods of time . Higher levels of autonomy do not necessarily require more complex cognitive capabilities. For example, robots in assembly plants are completely autonomous but operate in a fixed pattern.

自主机器人可能会在很长一段时间里没有人类的互动。更高水平的自主性并不一定需要更复杂的认知能力。例如，装配厂的机器人是完全自主的，但是以固定的模式工作。

Another classification takes into account the interaction between human control and the machine motions.

另一种分类考虑了人的控制和机器运动之间的相互作用。

Teleoperation. A human controls each movement, each machine actuator change is specified by the operator.

Teleoperation. A human controls each movement, each machine actuator change is specified by the operator.

遥控操作。一个人控制每一个动作，每一个机器执行机构的变化由操作者指定。

Supervisory. A human specifies general moves or position changes and the machine decides specific movements of its actuators.

Supervisory. A human specifies general moves or position changes and the machine decides specific movements of its actuators.

监督。人指定一般动作或位置的变化，机器决定驱动器的具体动作。

Task-level autonomy. The operator specifies only the task and the robot manages itself to complete it.

Task-level autonomy. The operator specifies only the task and the robot manages itself to complete it.

任务级自主。操作员只指定任务，机器人自己管理完成任务。

Full autonomy. The machine will create and complete all its tasks without human interaction.

Full autonomy. The machine will create and complete all its tasks without human interaction.

完全自主。机器将创建和完成所有的任务没有人的互动。

Research

研究

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Two Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers stand with three vehicles, providing a size comparison of three generations of Mars rovers. Front and center is the flight spare for the first Mars rover, Sojourner, which landed on Mars in 1997 as part of the Mars Pathfinder Project. On the left is a Mars Exploration Rover (MER) test vehicle that is a working sibling to Spirit and Opportunity, which landed on Mars in 2004. On the right is a test rover for the Mars Science Laboratory, which landed Curiosity on Mars in 2012.模板:Paragraph break Sojourner is 模板:Convert long. The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) are 模板:Convert long. Curiosity on the right is 模板:Convert long.

Two [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers stand with three vehicles, providing a size comparison of three generations of Mars rovers. Front and center is the flight spare for the first Mars rover, Sojourner, which landed on Mars in 1997 as part of the Mars Pathfinder Project. On the left is a Mars Exploration Rover (MER) test vehicle that is a working sibling to Spirit and Opportunity, which landed on Mars in 2004. On the right is a test rover for the Mars Science Laboratory, which landed Curiosity on Mars in 2012. Sojourner is long. The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) are long. Curiosity on the right is long.]]

喷气推进实验室的工程师站在3个车辆上，提供了3代火星漫游者的大小对比。前面和中间是第一个火星探测器的飞行备件，作为火星探路者计划的一部分，它于1997年登陆火星。左边是2004年降落在火星上的勇气号和机遇号的兄弟火星探测漫游者号(MER)测试飞行器。右边是火星科学实验室的测试漫游者，2012年好奇号登陆火星。索杰纳很长。火星探测车(MER)很长。右边的好奇心很长]

Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. Other investigations, such as MIT's cyberflora project, are almost wholly academic.

机器人技术的许多研究并不关注具体的工业任务，而是关注对新型机器人的研究，思考或设计机器人的替代方法，以及制造机器人的新方法。其它调查，如麻省理工学院的网络植物区系项目，几乎完全是学术性的。

A first particular new innovation in robot design is the open sourcing of robot-projects. To describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the near future evolution of robot technology. First generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the first generation robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparable to that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have the intelligence comparable to that of a monkey. Though fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.^[135]

A first particular new innovation in robot design is the open sourcing of robot-projects. To describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the near future evolution of robot technology. First generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the first generation robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparable to that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have the intelligence comparable to that of a monkey. Though fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.

机器人设计中的第一个创新是机器人项目的开源。为了描述机器人的进步程度，可以使用术语“一代机器人”。这个术语是由卡内基梅隆大学机器人学院的首席研究科学家 Hans Moravec 教授在描述机器人技术不久的将来的演变时创造的。莫拉维克在1997年预测，第一代机器人的智力水平应该可以与蜥蜴媲美，并将在2010年投入使用。然而，由于第一代机器人无法学习，莫拉维克预测第二代机器人将比第一代机器人有所改进，并在2020年投入使用，其智能可能与老鼠相当。第三代机器人的智力应该与猴子相当。莫拉维克教授预测，尽管第四代机器人---- 具有人类智能的机器人---- 将成为可能，但他并不认为这会在2040年或2050年前后发生。

The second is evolutionary robots. This is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population and replaced by a new set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use this method both to create better robots,^[136] and to explore the nature of evolution.^[137] Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated,^[138] this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation, using a robot simulator software package, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough.^[139] Currently, there are about 10 million industrial robots toiling around the world, and Japan is the top country having high density of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.^{[citation needed]}

The second is evolutionary robots. This is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population and replaced by a new set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use this method both to create better robots, and to explore the nature of evolution. Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated, this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation, using a robot simulator software package, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough. Currently, there are about 10 million industrial robots toiling around the world, and Japan is the top country having high density of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.

第二个是进化机器人。这是一种使用进化计算来帮助设计机器人的方法论，尤其是身体形态，或运动和行为控制器。类似于自然进化，一大群机器人被允许以某种方式竞争，或者它们执行任务的能力是用一个适应度函数来衡量的。那些表现最差的被从人群中剔除，取而代之的是一个新的集合，这个集合在获胜者的基础上有了新的行为。随着时间的推移，人口的增加，最终一个令人满意的机器人可能会出现。这种情况不需要研究人员对机器人进行任何直接编程。研究人员利用这种方法不仅创造了更好的机器人，而且探索了进化的本质。因为这个过程通常需要许多代的机器人来进行模拟，所以这项技术可以完全或者大部分在模拟中运行，使用机器人模拟器软件包，然后在真实的机器人上进行测试，一旦演化的算法足够好。目前，全世界大约有1000万工业机器人在工作，日本是制造业中使用机器人密度最高的国家。

Dynamics and kinematics

动力学和运动学

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The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics.^[140] Direct kinematics refers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance, and singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics, methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end-effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.

The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics. Direct kinematics refers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance, and singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics, methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end-effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.

运动学的研究可分为运动学和动力学。正向运动学是指当相应的关节值已知时，末端执行器位置、方向、速度和加速度的计算。逆运动学指的是相反的情况，在给定的末端执行器值中计算所需的关节值，如在路径规划中所做的那样。运动学的一些特殊方面包括处理冗余(执行相同运动的不同可能性) ，避免碰撞和奇异性避免。一旦所有相关的位置，速度和加速度已经计算使用运动学，方法从动力学领域被用来研究力对这些运动的影响。直接动力学是指一旦知道作用力后机器人加速度的计算。直接动力学方法用于机器人的计算机仿真。逆动力学是指计算必要的执行器力量创造一个规定的末端效应器加速度。这些信息可以用来改进机器人的控制算法。

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones, and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this, criteria for "optimal" performance and ways to optimize design, structure, and control of robots must be developed and implemented.

在上面提到的每一个领域，研究人员都在努力发展新的概念和战略，改进现有的概念和战略，并改善这些领域之间的互动。要做到这一点，必须制定和实施“最佳”性能的标准和优化设计、结构和机器人控制的方法。

Bionics and biomimetics

仿生学与仿生学

Bionics and biomimetics apply the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals to the design of robots. For example, the design of BionicKangaroo was based on the way kangaroos jump.

仿生学和仿生学将动物运动的生理学和方法应用到机器人的设计中。例如，BionicKangaroo 的设计就是基于袋鼠跳跃的方式。

Quantum computing

量子计算

There has been some research into whether robotics algorithms can be run more quickly on quantum computers than they can be run on digital computers. This area has been referred to as quantum robotics.^[141]

There has been some research into whether robotics algorithms can be run more quickly on quantum computers than they can be run on digital computers. This area has been referred to as quantum robotics.

有一些研究是关于机器人算法能否在量子计算机上运行得比在数字计算机上运行得更快。这个领域被称为量子机器人技术。

Education and training

教育及培训

文件:ER4u.jpg

The SCORBOT-ER 4u educational robot

SCORBOT-ER 4u educational robot]]

4 u 教育机器人]]

Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics.^[142] Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, particularly in parts of the USA,^[143] as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence, and robotics among students.

Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics. Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, particularly in parts of the USA, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence, and robotics among students.

机器人技术工程师设计机器人，维护机器人，为机器人开发新的应用，并进行研究以扩大机器人的潜力。机器人已经成为一些中学和高中的流行教育工具，特别是在美国的部分地区，以及无数的青少年夏令营，提高了学生对编程、人工智能和机器人的兴趣。

Career training

职业训练

Universities offer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in the field of robotics.^[144] Vocational schools offer robotics training aimed at careers in robotics.

Universities offer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in the field of robotics. Vocational schools offer robotics training aimed at careers in robotics.

大学提供机器人学领域的学士、硕士和博士学位。职业学校提供针对机器人职业的机器人技术培训。

Certification

认证

The Robotics Certification Standards Alliance (RCSA) is an international robotics certification authority that confers various industry- and educational-related robotics certifications.

机器人认证标准联盟(RCSA)是一个国际机器人认证机构，授予各种行业和教育相关的机器人认证。

Summer robotics camp

夏季机器人夏令营

Several national summer camp programs include robotics as part of their core curriculum. In addition, youth summer robotics programs are frequently offered by celebrated museums and institutions.

几个国家夏令营项目包括机器人作为他们的核心课程的一部分。此外，青少年暑期机器人项目经常由著名的博物馆和机构提供。

Robotics competitions

机器人竞赛

There are lots of competitions all around the globe. The SeaPerch curriculum is aimed as students of all ages. This is a short list of competition examples; for a more complete list see Robot competition.

世界各地有很多比赛。课程面向所有年龄段的学生。这是一个简短的比赛例子清单，更完整的清单见机器人比赛。

Competitions for Younger Children

幼儿比赛

The FIRST organization offers the FIRST Lego League Jr. competitions for younger children. This competition's goal is to offer younger children an opportunity to start learning about science and technology. Children in this competition build Lego models and have the option of using the Lego WeDo robotics kit.

第一组织为年龄更小的孩子举办小 FIRST乐高联赛竞赛。这次比赛的目的是为年幼的孩子提供一个开始学习科学和技术的机会。在这个比赛中，孩子们可以搭建乐高模型，并且可以选择使用乐高 WeDo 机器人套件。

Competitions for Children Ages 9-14

9-14岁儿童比赛

One of the most important competitions is the FLL or FIRST Lego League. The idea of this specific competition is that kids start developing knowledge and getting into robotics while playing with Lego since they are 9 years old. This competition is associated with National Instruments. Children use Lego Mindstorms to solve autonomous robotics challenges in this competition.

最重要的比赛之一是 FLL 或者 FIRST乐高联赛。这个比赛的目的是让孩子们从9岁开始就在玩乐高玩具的时候开始学习知识，并且进入机器人领域。这项比赛与国家仪器有关。孩子们用 Lego Mindstorms 来解决自主机器人在这次比赛中的挑战。

Competitions for Teenagers

青少年比赛

The FIRST Tech Challenge is designed for intermediate students, as a transition from the FIRST Lego League to the FIRST Robotics Competition.

第一次技术挑战是为中级学生设计的，作为从 FIRST乐高联赛到 FIRST机器人竞赛的过渡。

The FIRST Robotics Competition focuses more on mechanical design, with a specific game being played each year. Robots are built specifically for that year's game. In match play, the robot moves autonomously during the first 15 seconds of the game (although certain years such as 2019's Deep Space change this rule), and is manually operated for the rest of the match.

FIRST机器人竞赛更注重机械设计，每年都会玩一种特定的游戏。机器人是专门为那一年的比赛制造的。在比赛中，机器人在比赛的前15秒自动移动(尽管某些年份，如2019年的深空改变了这一规则) ，并在接下来的比赛中手动操作。

Competitions for Older Students

高年级学生比赛

The various RoboCup competitions include teams of teenagers and university students. These competitions focus on soccer competitions with different types of robots, dance competitions, and urban search and rescue competitions. All of the robots in these competitions must be autonomous. Some of these competitions focus on simulated robots.

各种机器人杯比赛包括青少年和大学生组成的队伍。这些比赛的重点是不同类型的机器人足球比赛，舞蹈比赛，城市搜索和救援比赛。参加这些比赛的所有机器人都必须是自主的。其中一些比赛聚焦于模拟机器人。

AUVSI runs competitions for flying robots, robot boats, and underwater robots.

Auvsi 为飞行机器人、机器人船和水下机器人举办比赛。

The Student AUV Competition Europe ^[145] (SAUC-E) mainly attracts undergraduate and graduate student teams. As in the AUVSI competitions, the robots must be fully autonomous while they are participating in the competition.

The Student AUV Competition Europe (SAUC-E) mainly attracts undergraduate and graduate student teams. As in the AUVSI competitions, the robots must be fully autonomous while they are participating in the competition.

欧洲学生水下机器人比赛主要吸引本科生和研究生团队参加。就像在 AUVSI 比赛中一样，机器人在参加比赛时必须是完全自主的。

The Microtransat Challenge is a competition to sail a boat across the Atlantic Ocean.

Microtransat 挑战赛是一项横渡大西洋的比赛。

Competitions Open to Anyone

比赛对任何人开放

RoboGames is open to anyone wishing to compete in their over 50 categories of robot competitions.

机器人大赛向所有希望参加50多项机器人比赛的人开放。

Federation of International Robot-soccer Association holds the FIRA World Cup competitions. There are flying robot competitions, robot soccer competitions, and other challenges, including weightlifting barbells made from dowels and CDs.

国际机器人足球协会联合会举办 FIRA 世界杯比赛。有飞行机器人比赛，机器人足球比赛，和其他挑战，包括举重杠铃由销和 cd。

Robotics afterschool programs

机器人课外项目

Many schools across the country are beginning to add robotics programs to their after school curriculum. Some major programs for afterschool robotics include FIRST Robotics Competition, Botball and B.E.S.T. Robotics.^[146] Robotics competitions often include aspects of business and marketing as well as engineering and design.

Many schools across the country are beginning to add robotics programs to their after school curriculum. Some major programs for afterschool robotics include FIRST Robotics Competition, Botball and B.E.S.T. Robotics. Robotics competitions often include aspects of business and marketing as well as engineering and design.

全国各地的许多学校都开始在课外课程中增加机器人项目。一些主要的课外机器人项目包括 FIRST机器人竞赛、 Botball 和 b.e.s.t。Robotics.机器人竞赛通常包括商业和市场营销以及工程和设计。

The Lego company began a program for children to learn and get excited about robotics at a young age.^[147]

The Lego company began a program for children to learn and get excited about robotics at a young age.

乐高公司在孩子很小的时候就开始了一个让他们学习并且对机器人技术感到兴奋的项目。

Employment

就业

文件:MobileRobotsPioneerAT.jpg

A robot technician builds small all-terrain robots. (Courtesy: MobileRobots Inc)

机器人技术员制造小型全地形机器人。(感谢: mobilebots Inc)

Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturing environments. As factories increase their use of robots, the number of robotics–related jobs grow and have been observed to be steadily rising.^[148] The employment of robots in industries has increased productivity and efficiency savings and is typically seen as a long term investment for benefactors. A paper by Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey found that 47 per cent of US jobs are at risk to automation "over some unspecified number of years".^[149] These claims have been criticized on the ground that social policy, not AI, causes unemployment.^[150] In a 2016 article in The Guardian, Stehphen Hawking stated "The automation of factories has already decimated jobs in traditional manufacturing, and the rise of artificial intelligence is likely to extend this job destruction deep into the middle classes, with only the most caring, creative or supervisory roles remaining".^[151]

Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturing environments. As factories increase their use of robots, the number of robotics–related jobs grow and have been observed to be steadily rising. The employment of robots in industries has increased productivity and efficiency savings and is typically seen as a long term investment for benefactors. A paper by Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey found that 47 per cent of US jobs are at risk to automation "over some unspecified number of years". These claims have been criticized on the ground that social policy, not AI, causes unemployment. In a 2016 article in The Guardian, Stehphen Hawking stated "The automation of factories has already decimated jobs in traditional manufacturing, and the rise of artificial intelligence is likely to extend this job destruction deep into the middle classes, with only the most caring, creative or supervisory roles remaining".

机器人技术是许多现代制造环境中的重要组成部分。随着工厂增加对机器人的使用，机器人相关工作的数量也在增加，而且据观察，这个数字还在稳步上升。在工业中使用机器人提高了生产力和效率，并且通常被看作是对捐助者的长期投资。迈克尔•奥斯本(Michael Osborne)和卡尔•贝内迪克特•弗雷(Carl Benedikt Frey)在一篇论文中发现，美国47% 的工作“在未指明的数年内”面临自动化的风险。这些主张受到了批评，理由是社会政策，而不是人工智能，造成了失业。在2016年《卫报》(The Guardian)的一篇文章中，斯蒂芬•霍金(Stehphen Hawking)表示: “工厂的自动化已经大幅削减了传统制造业的工作岗位，而人工智能的兴起很可能将这种工作岗位的毁灭深深地延伸到中产阶级，只剩下最有爱心、最有创造力或最具。

Occupational safety and health implications

职业安全及健康影响

A discussion paper drawn up by EU-OSHA highlights how the spread of robotics presents both opportunities and challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH).^[152]

A discussion paper drawn up by EU-OSHA highlights how the spread of robotics presents both opportunities and challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH).

欧洲职业安全与卫生组织起草的一份讨论文件强调了机器人技术的普及为职业安全与卫生(OSH)带来了机遇和挑战。

The greatest OSH benefits stemming from the wider use of robotics should be substitution for people working in unhealthy or dangerous environments. In space, defence, security, or the nuclear industry, but also in logistics, maintenance, and inspection, autonomous robots are particularly useful in replacing human workers performing dirty, dull or unsafe tasks, thus avoiding workers' exposures to hazardous agents and conditions and reducing physical, ergonomic and psychosocial risks. For example, robots are already used to perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, to handle radioactive material or to work in explosive atmospheres. In the future, many other highly repetitive, risky or unpleasant tasks will be performed by robots in a variety of sectors like agriculture, construction, transport, healthcare, firefighting or cleaning services.^[153]

The greatest OSH benefits stemming from the wider use of robotics should be substitution for people working in unhealthy or dangerous environments. In space, defence, security, or the nuclear industry, but also in logistics, maintenance, and inspection, autonomous robots are particularly useful in replacing human workers performing dirty, dull or unsafe tasks, thus avoiding workers' exposures to hazardous agents and conditions and reducing physical, ergonomic and psychosocial risks. For example, robots are already used to perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, to handle radioactive material or to work in explosive atmospheres. In the future, many other highly repetitive, risky or unpleasant tasks will be performed by robots in a variety of sectors like agriculture, construction, transport, healthcare, firefighting or cleaning services.

更广泛地使用机器人技术带来的最大的职业安全和健康益处应该是取代在不健康或危险环境中工作的人员。在太空、国防、安全或核工业，以及后勤、维护和检查方面，自动化机器人在替代人类工人执行肮脏、乏味或不安全的任务方面特别有用，从而避免工人暴露在有害物质和条件下，减少身体、人体工程学和心理社会风险。例如，机器人已经被用于执行重复而单调的任务，处理放射性物质或在爆炸性环境中工作。在未来，许多其他高度重复、高风险或令人不快的任务将由机器人在农业、建筑、运输、医疗、消防或清洁服务等各个领域完成。

Despite these advances, there are certain skills to which humans will be better suited than machines for some time to come and the question is how to achieve the best combination of human and robot skills. The advantages of robotics include heavy-duty jobs with precision and repeatability, whereas the advantages of humans include creativity, decision-making, flexibility, and adaptability. This need to combine optimal skills has resulted in collaborative robots and humans sharing a common workspace more closely and led to the development of new approaches and standards to guarantee the safety of the "man-robot merger". Some European countries are including robotics in their national programmes and trying to promote a safe and flexible co-operation between robots and operators to achieve better productivity. For example, the German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) organises annual workshops on the topic "human-robot collaboration".

尽管有这些进步，在未来的一段时间里，人类比机器更适合某些技能，问题是如何实现人类和机器人技能的最佳结合。机器人的优势包括具有精确性和可重复性的重型工作，而人类的优势包括创造力、决策、灵活性和适应性。这种将最佳技能结合起来的需要导致协作机器人和人类更密切地共享一个共同的工作空间，并导致制定新的办法和标准，以保证”人与机器人合并”的安全。一些欧洲国家正在将机器人技术纳入其国家方案，并试图促进机器人与操作人员之间安全和灵活的合作，以提高生产力。例如，德国联邦职业安全与健康研究所(BAuA)每年都组织以“人-机器人协作”为主题的研讨会。

In the future, co-operation between robots and humans will be diversified, with robots increasing their autonomy and human-robot collaboration reaching completely new forms. Current approaches and technical standards^[154]^[155] aiming to protect employees from the risk of working with collaborative robots will have to be revised.

In the future, co-operation between robots and humans will be diversified, with robots increasing their autonomy and human-robot collaboration reaching completely new forms. Current approaches and technical standards aiming to protect employees from the risk of working with collaborative robots will have to be revised.

在未来，机器人和人类之间的合作将是多样化的，机器人将增加它们的自主性，人类和机器人之间的合作将达到全新的形式。目前旨在保护雇员免受协作机器人工作风险的方法和技术标准必须修订。

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↑ Sandra Pauletto, Tristan Bowles, (2010). Designing the emotional content of a robotic speech signal. In: Proceedings of the 5th Audio Mostly Conference: A Conference on Interaction with Sound, New York,

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External links

外部链接

模板:Sister project links

模板:Curlie

IEEE Robotics and Automation Society

Investigation of social robots – Robots that mimic human behaviors and gestures.

Wired's guide to the '50 best robots ever', a mix of robots in fiction (Hal, R2D2, K9) to real robots (Roomba, Mobot, Aibo).

模板:Robotics

模板:Engineering fields

模板:Emerging technologies

模板:Glossaries of science and engineering

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Robotics. Its edit history can be viewed at 机器人学/edithistory

[1] International classification system of the German National Library (GND) https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&cqlMode=true&query=nid%3D4261462-4. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

[2] Nocks, Lisa (2007). The robot : the life story of a technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

[3] Carne, Nick (March 8, 2019). "Researchers make a million tiny robots". Cosmos Magazine. Retrieved March 8, 2019.

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