更改

添加5,739字节 、 2020年11月13日 (五) 21:31
无编辑摘要
第576行: 第576行:  
After initially receiving little attention from scientists (from 1969 until 1977), thereafter for a period the initial Gaia hypothesis was criticized by a number of scientists, such as [[Ford Doolittle]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Doolittle|first=W. F.|year=1981|title=Is Nature Really Motherly|url=|journal=The Coevolution Quarterly|volume=Spring|pages=58–63|via=}}</ref> [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Extended Phenotype: the Long Reach of the Gene|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-19-286088-0|location=|pages=}}</ref> and [[Stephen Jay Gould]].<ref name="ReferenceB">Turney, Jon. "Lovelock and Gaia: Signs of Life" (Revolutions in Science)</ref> Lovelock has said that because his hypothesis is named after a Greek goddess, and championed by many non-scientists,<ref name="Lovelock01"/> the Gaia hypothesis was interpreted as a [[neo-Pagan]] [[religion]]. Many scientists in particular also criticised the approach taken in his popular book ''Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth'' for being [[teleology|teleological]]—a belief that things are purposeful and aimed towards a goal. Responding to this critique in 1990, Lovelock stated, "Nowhere in our writings do we express the idea that planetary self-regulation is purposeful, or involves foresight or planning by the [[biota (ecology)|biota]]".
 
After initially receiving little attention from scientists (from 1969 until 1977), thereafter for a period the initial Gaia hypothesis was criticized by a number of scientists, such as [[Ford Doolittle]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Doolittle|first=W. F.|year=1981|title=Is Nature Really Motherly|url=|journal=The Coevolution Quarterly|volume=Spring|pages=58–63|via=}}</ref> [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Extended Phenotype: the Long Reach of the Gene|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-19-286088-0|location=|pages=}}</ref> and [[Stephen Jay Gould]].<ref name="ReferenceB">Turney, Jon. "Lovelock and Gaia: Signs of Life" (Revolutions in Science)</ref> Lovelock has said that because his hypothesis is named after a Greek goddess, and championed by many non-scientists,<ref name="Lovelock01"/> the Gaia hypothesis was interpreted as a [[neo-Pagan]] [[religion]]. Many scientists in particular also criticised the approach taken in his popular book ''Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth'' for being [[teleology|teleological]]—a belief that things are purposeful and aimed towards a goal. Responding to this critique in 1990, Lovelock stated, "Nowhere in our writings do we express the idea that planetary self-regulation is purposeful, or involves foresight or planning by the [[biota (ecology)|biota]]".
   −
 
+
最初很少受到科学家的关注(从1969年到1977年),此后的一段时间里,最初的盖亚假说受到了许多科学家的批评,比如福特·杜利特,理查德·道金斯和斯蒂芬·杰伊·古尔德洛夫洛克曾说过,因为他的假设是以希腊女神的名字命名的,新盖亚假说被许多非教派的科学家解释为。特别是许多科学家还批评了他的畅销书《盖亚》中采用的方法,认为地球上的生命是目的论的,认为事物是有目的的,是有目的的。洛夫洛克在1990年回应这一批评时说:“在我们的著作中我们没有任何地方表达行星自我调节是有目的的,或涉及生物群的远见或计划。”
    
[[Stephen Jay Gould]] criticised Gaia as being "a metaphor, not a mechanism."<ref name="Gould 1997">{{cite journal |author=Gould S.J. |title=Kropotkin was no crackpot |journal=Natural History |volume=106 |pages=12–21 |date=June 1997  |url=http://libcom.org/library/kropotkin-was-no-crackpot |ref=harv}}</ref> He wanted to know the actual mechanisms by which self-regulating homeostasis was achieved. In his defense of Gaia, David Abram argues that Gould overlooked the fact that "mechanism", itself, is a metaphor — albeit an exceedingly common and often unrecognized metaphor — one which leads us to consider natural and living systems as though they were machines organized and built from outside (rather than as [[autopoiesis|autopoietic]] or self-organizing phenomena). Mechanical metaphors, according to Abram, lead us to overlook the active or agential quality of living entities, while the organismic metaphorics of the Gaia hypothesis accentuate the active agency of both the biota and the biosphere as a whole.<ref>Abram, D. (1988) "The Mechanical and the Organic: On the Impact of Metaphor in Science" in Scientists on Gaia, edited by Stephen Schneider and Penelope Boston, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1991</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildethics.org/essays/the_mechanical_and_the_organic.html |title=The Mechanical and the Organic |accessdate=August 27, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223165936/http://www.wildethics.org/essays/the_mechanical_and_the_organic.html |archivedate=February 23, 2012 }}</ref> With regard to causality in Gaia, Lovelock argues that no single mechanism is responsible, that the connections between the various known mechanisms may never be known, that this is accepted in other fields of biology and ecology as a matter of course, and that specific hostility is reserved for his own hypothesis for other reasons.<ref name="Lovelock, James 2001">Lovelock, James (2001), ''Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist'' (Oxford University Press)</ref>
 
[[Stephen Jay Gould]] criticised Gaia as being "a metaphor, not a mechanism."<ref name="Gould 1997">{{cite journal |author=Gould S.J. |title=Kropotkin was no crackpot |journal=Natural History |volume=106 |pages=12–21 |date=June 1997  |url=http://libcom.org/library/kropotkin-was-no-crackpot |ref=harv}}</ref> He wanted to know the actual mechanisms by which self-regulating homeostasis was achieved. In his defense of Gaia, David Abram argues that Gould overlooked the fact that "mechanism", itself, is a metaphor — albeit an exceedingly common and often unrecognized metaphor — one which leads us to consider natural and living systems as though they were machines organized and built from outside (rather than as [[autopoiesis|autopoietic]] or self-organizing phenomena). Mechanical metaphors, according to Abram, lead us to overlook the active or agential quality of living entities, while the organismic metaphorics of the Gaia hypothesis accentuate the active agency of both the biota and the biosphere as a whole.<ref>Abram, D. (1988) "The Mechanical and the Organic: On the Impact of Metaphor in Science" in Scientists on Gaia, edited by Stephen Schneider and Penelope Boston, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1991</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildethics.org/essays/the_mechanical_and_the_organic.html |title=The Mechanical and the Organic |accessdate=August 27, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223165936/http://www.wildethics.org/essays/the_mechanical_and_the_organic.html |archivedate=February 23, 2012 }}</ref> With regard to causality in Gaia, Lovelock argues that no single mechanism is responsible, that the connections between the various known mechanisms may never be known, that this is accepted in other fields of biology and ecology as a matter of course, and that specific hostility is reserved for his own hypothesis for other reasons.<ref name="Lovelock, James 2001">Lovelock, James (2001), ''Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist'' (Oxford University Press)</ref>
 
+
史蒂芬·杰伊·古尔德批评盖亚是“一种隐喻,而不是一种机制。”他想知道实现自我调节内稳态的实际机制。在为盖亚辩护时,大卫·艾布拉姆认为古尔德忽略了一个事实,即“机制”本身就是一个隐喻——尽管这是一个非常常见且常常未被人认识的隐喻——它使我们把自然和生命系统看作是从外部组织和建造的机器(而不是自动或自组织的)现象)。艾布拉姆认为,机械隐喻使我们忽视了生命实体的活动性或能动性,而盖亚假说的有机体隐喻强调了生物群和生物圈作为一个整体的能动性。关于盖亚的因果关系,洛夫洛克认为没有单一的机制负责各种已知机制之间的联系可能永远不为人所知,这一点在其他生物学和生态学领域都是理所当然的,而具体的敌意是出于其他原因留给他自己的假设的
       
Aside from clarifying his language and understanding of what is meant by a life form, Lovelock himself ascribes most of the criticism to a lack of understanding of non-linear mathematics by his critics, and a linearizing form of [[greedy reductionism]] in which all events have to be immediately ascribed to specific causes before the fact. He also states that most of his critics are biologists but that his hypothesis includes experiments in fields outside biology, and that some self-regulating phenomena may not be mathematically explainable.<ref name="Lovelock, James 2001"/>
 
Aside from clarifying his language and understanding of what is meant by a life form, Lovelock himself ascribes most of the criticism to a lack of understanding of non-linear mathematics by his critics, and a linearizing form of [[greedy reductionism]] in which all events have to be immediately ascribed to specific causes before the fact. He also states that most of his critics are biologists but that his hypothesis includes experiments in fields outside biology, and that some self-regulating phenomena may not be mathematically explainable.<ref name="Lovelock, James 2001"/>
   −
 
+
除了澄清自己的语言和对生命形式的理解之外,洛夫洛克自己将大部分批评归咎于批评家对非线性数学的缺乏理解,以及贪婪还原论的线性化形式,在这种形式中,所有事件都必须在事实发生之前立即归因于特定的原因。他还指出,批评他的人大多是生物学家,但他的假设包括生物学以外领域的实验,有些自我调节的现象可能无法用数学解释
    
===Natural selection and evolution自然选择和进化===
 
===Natural selection and evolution自然选择和进化===
第590行: 第590行:  
Lovelock has suggested that global biological feedback mechanisms could evolve by [[natural selection]], stating that organisms that improve their environment for their survival do better than those that damage their environment. However, in the early 1980s, [[Ford Doolittle|W. Ford Doolittle]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] separately argued against this aspect of Gaia. Doolittle argued that nothing in the [[genome]] of individual organisms could provide the feedback mechanisms proposed by Lovelock, and therefore the Gaia hypothesis proposed no plausible mechanism and was unscientific.<ref name=":1" /> Dawkins meanwhile stated that for organisms to act in concert would require foresight and planning, which is contrary to the current scientific understanding of evolution.<ref name=":2" /> Like Doolittle, he also rejected the possibility that feedback loops could stabilize the system.
 
Lovelock has suggested that global biological feedback mechanisms could evolve by [[natural selection]], stating that organisms that improve their environment for their survival do better than those that damage their environment. However, in the early 1980s, [[Ford Doolittle|W. Ford Doolittle]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] separately argued against this aspect of Gaia. Doolittle argued that nothing in the [[genome]] of individual organisms could provide the feedback mechanisms proposed by Lovelock, and therefore the Gaia hypothesis proposed no plausible mechanism and was unscientific.<ref name=":1" /> Dawkins meanwhile stated that for organisms to act in concert would require foresight and planning, which is contrary to the current scientific understanding of evolution.<ref name=":2" /> Like Doolittle, he also rejected the possibility that feedback loops could stabilize the system.
   −
 
+
洛夫洛克提出,全球生物反馈机制可以通过自然选择而进化,他指出,为生存而改善环境的生物比那些破坏环境的生物做得更好。然而,在20世纪80年代早期,W·福特·杜立德和理查德·道金斯分别反对盖亚的这一方面。杜立德认为,单个生物体的基因组中没有任何东西能够提供洛夫洛克提出的反馈机制,因此盖亚假说没有提出任何合理的机制,是不科学的。道金斯同时指出,要使有机体协同行动,就需要有远见和计划,这与当前科学界对进化论的理解相悖和杜立德一样,他也拒绝了反馈回路可以稳定系统的可能性。
    
[[Lynn Margulis]], a microbiologist who collaborated with Lovelock in supporting the Gaia hypothesis, argued in 1999, that "[[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete. In accentuating the direct competition between individuals for resources as the primary selection mechanism, Darwin (and especially his followers) created the impression that the environment was simply a static arena". She wrote that the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in [[homeostasis]], but those set points change with time.<ref name="ReferenceA">Margulis, Lynn. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look At Evolution. Houston: Basic Book 1999</ref>
 
[[Lynn Margulis]], a microbiologist who collaborated with Lovelock in supporting the Gaia hypothesis, argued in 1999, that "[[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete. In accentuating the direct competition between individuals for resources as the primary selection mechanism, Darwin (and especially his followers) created the impression that the environment was simply a static arena". She wrote that the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in [[homeostasis]], but those set points change with time.<ref name="ReferenceA">Margulis, Lynn. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look At Evolution. Houston: Basic Book 1999</ref>
   −
 
+
Lynn Margulis,一位与Lovelock合作支持盖亚假说的微生物学家,在1999年指出,“达尔文的宏伟愿景没有错,只是不完整。达尔文(特别是他的追随者)强调个人之间对资源的直接竞争是主要的选择机制,他给人的印象是环境只是一个静态的竞技场”。她写道,地球大气、水圈和岩石圈的组成都是围绕着“设定点”来调节的,就像在体内平衡中一样,但是这些设定点会随着时间的推移而变化
    
Evolutionary biologist [[W. D. Hamilton]] called the concept of Gaia [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernican]], adding that it would take another [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] to explain how Gaian self-regulation takes place through Darwinian [[natural selection]].<ref name=vanish09>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, pp. 195-197. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>{{better source|date=September 2012|reason=it should be possible to find the original place where Hamilton said this}}  More recently [[Ford Doolittle]] building on his and Inkpen's ITSNTS (It's The Singer Not The Song) proposal<ref name="ITSNTS">Doolittle WF, Inkpen SA. Processes and patterns of interaction as units of selection: An introduction to ITSNTS thinking. [https://www.pnas.org/content/115/16/4006 PNAS April 17, 2018 115 (16)] 4006-4014 </ref> proposed that differential persistence can play a similar role to differential reproduction in evolution by natural selections, thereby providing a possible reconciliation between the theory of natural selection and the Gaia hypothesis<ref name="Darwinizing Gaia">Doolittle WF. Darwinizing Gaia. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.015 Journal of Theoretical BiologyVolume 434], 7 December 2017, Pages 11-19 </ref>.  
 
Evolutionary biologist [[W. D. Hamilton]] called the concept of Gaia [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernican]], adding that it would take another [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] to explain how Gaian self-regulation takes place through Darwinian [[natural selection]].<ref name=vanish09>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, pp. 195-197. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>{{better source|date=September 2012|reason=it should be possible to find the original place where Hamilton said this}}  More recently [[Ford Doolittle]] building on his and Inkpen's ITSNTS (It's The Singer Not The Song) proposal<ref name="ITSNTS">Doolittle WF, Inkpen SA. Processes and patterns of interaction as units of selection: An introduction to ITSNTS thinking. [https://www.pnas.org/content/115/16/4006 PNAS April 17, 2018 115 (16)] 4006-4014 </ref> proposed that differential persistence can play a similar role to differential reproduction in evolution by natural selections, thereby providing a possible reconciliation between the theory of natural selection and the Gaia hypothesis<ref name="Darwinizing Gaia">Doolittle WF. Darwinizing Gaia. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.015 Journal of Theoretical BiologyVolume 434], 7 December 2017, Pages 11-19 </ref>.  
 
+
进化生物学家汉密尔顿称盖亚哥白尼为盖亚的概念,他补充说,需要另一个牛顿来解释盖安的自我调节是如何通过达尔文的自然选择发生的。通过自然选择在进化过程中的繁殖,从而为自然选择理论和盖亚假说提供了可能的调和。
      第603行: 第603行:     
The Gaia hypothesis continues to be broadly skeptically received by the scientific community. For instance, arguments both for and against it were laid out in the journal ''Climatic Change'' in 2002 and 2003. A significant argument raised against it are the many examples where life has had a detrimental or destabilising effect on the environment rather than acting to regulate it.<ref name="kirchner2002"/><ref name="volk2002"/> Several recent books have criticised the Gaia hypothesis, expressing views ranging from "... the Gaia hypothesis lacks unambiguous observational support and has significant theoretical difficulties"<ref>{{cite book |last=Waltham |first=David |authorlink=David Waltham |date=2014 |title=Lucky Planet: Why Earth is Exceptional – and What that Means for Life in the Universe |url=https://archive.org/details/luckyplanetwhyea0000walt |location= |publisher=Icon Books |page= |isbn=9781848316560 |accessdate= |url-access=registration }}</ref> to "Suspended uncomfortably between tainted metaphor, fact, and false science, I prefer to leave Gaia firmly in the background"<ref name="beerling2007"/> to "The Gaia hypothesis is supported neither by evolutionary theory nor by the empirical evidence of the geological record".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Cockell |last2=Corfield |first2=Richard |last3=Dise |first3= Nancy  |last4=Edwards |first4=Neil  |last5=Harris |first5=Nigel  |date=2008 |title= An Introduction to the Earth-Life System |url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/earth-and-environmental-science/palaeontology-and-life-history/introduction-earth-life-system |location=Cambridge (UK) |publisher= Cambridge University Press |page= |isbn= 9780521729536 |accessdate= }}</ref> The [[CLAW hypothesis]],<ref name="CLAW87" /> initially suggested as a potential example of direct Gaian feedback, has subsequently been found to be less credible as understanding of [[cloud condensation nuclei]] has improved.<ref>{{Citation |last1= Quinn |first1=P.K. |last2= Bates |first2=T.S. |title =The case against climate regulation via oceanic phytoplankton sulphur emissions |journal =Nature |volume=480 |issue=7375 |pages =51–56 |date = 2011 |doi=10.1038/nature10580|bibcode = 2011Natur.480...51Q |pmid=22129724|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233319 }}</ref> In 2009 the [[Medea hypothesis]] was proposed: that life has highly detrimental (biocidal) impacts on planetary conditions, in direct opposition to the Gaia hypothesis.<ref>Peter Ward (2009), ''The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive?'', {{ISBN|0-691-13075-2}}</ref>
 
The Gaia hypothesis continues to be broadly skeptically received by the scientific community. For instance, arguments both for and against it were laid out in the journal ''Climatic Change'' in 2002 and 2003. A significant argument raised against it are the many examples where life has had a detrimental or destabilising effect on the environment rather than acting to regulate it.<ref name="kirchner2002"/><ref name="volk2002"/> Several recent books have criticised the Gaia hypothesis, expressing views ranging from "... the Gaia hypothesis lacks unambiguous observational support and has significant theoretical difficulties"<ref>{{cite book |last=Waltham |first=David |authorlink=David Waltham |date=2014 |title=Lucky Planet: Why Earth is Exceptional – and What that Means for Life in the Universe |url=https://archive.org/details/luckyplanetwhyea0000walt |location= |publisher=Icon Books |page= |isbn=9781848316560 |accessdate= |url-access=registration }}</ref> to "Suspended uncomfortably between tainted metaphor, fact, and false science, I prefer to leave Gaia firmly in the background"<ref name="beerling2007"/> to "The Gaia hypothesis is supported neither by evolutionary theory nor by the empirical evidence of the geological record".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Cockell |last2=Corfield |first2=Richard |last3=Dise |first3= Nancy  |last4=Edwards |first4=Neil  |last5=Harris |first5=Nigel  |date=2008 |title= An Introduction to the Earth-Life System |url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/earth-and-environmental-science/palaeontology-and-life-history/introduction-earth-life-system |location=Cambridge (UK) |publisher= Cambridge University Press |page= |isbn= 9780521729536 |accessdate= }}</ref> The [[CLAW hypothesis]],<ref name="CLAW87" /> initially suggested as a potential example of direct Gaian feedback, has subsequently been found to be less credible as understanding of [[cloud condensation nuclei]] has improved.<ref>{{Citation |last1= Quinn |first1=P.K. |last2= Bates |first2=T.S. |title =The case against climate regulation via oceanic phytoplankton sulphur emissions |journal =Nature |volume=480 |issue=7375 |pages =51–56 |date = 2011 |doi=10.1038/nature10580|bibcode = 2011Natur.480...51Q |pmid=22129724|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233319 }}</ref> In 2009 the [[Medea hypothesis]] was proposed: that life has highly detrimental (biocidal) impacts on planetary conditions, in direct opposition to the Gaia hypothesis.<ref>Peter Ward (2009), ''The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive?'', {{ISBN|0-691-13075-2}}</ref>
 +
盖亚假说仍然受到科学界的广泛怀疑。例如,在2003年和2002年的《气候变化》杂志上都提出了反对意见。反对它的一个重要论点是许多例子,其中生命对环境产生了有害或不稳定的影响,而不是采取行动来调节它。最近几本书批评了盖亚假说,表达了从“盖亚假说缺乏明确的观察支持,并且有重大的理论困难“到”令人不安地徘徊在污点隐喻、事实和虚假科学之间,我宁愿把盖亚牢牢地放在背景中“到”盖亚假说既没有进化论的支持,也没有地质记录的经验证据的支持。爪假说最初被认为是盖安直接反馈的一个潜在例子,后来被发现对云的理解不那么可信凝聚核已经得到了改善2009年,美狄亚假说被提出:生命对行星的状况有非常有害的(杀生的)影响,这与盖亚假说直接相反       
          
In a 2013 book-length evaluation of the Gaia hypothesis considering modern evidence from across the various relevant disciplines, Toby Tyrrell concluded that: "I believe Gaia is a dead end. Its study has, however, generated many new and thought provoking questions. While rejecting Gaia, we can at the same time appreciate Lovelock's originality and breadth of vision, and recognise that his audacious concept has helped to stimulate many new ideas about the Earth, and to champion a holistic approach to studying it".<ref>{{citation |last=Tyrrell |first=Toby |authorlink= |date= 2013|title= On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9959.html |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=209 |isbn=9780691121581 |accessdate= }}</ref> Elsewhere he presents his conclusion "The Gaia hypothesis is not an accurate picture of how our world works".<ref>{{Citation |last= Tyrrell |first = Toby |title =Gaia: the verdict is… |journal = New Scientist |volume = 220 |issue = 2940 |pages = 30–31 |date= 26 October 2013 |doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(13)62532-4}}</ref> This statement needs to be understood as referring to the "strong" and "moderate" forms of Gaia—that the biota obeys a principle that works to make Earth optimal (strength 5) or favourable for life (strength 4) or that it works as a homeostatic mechanism (strength 3). The latter is the "weakest" form of Gaia that Lovelock has advocated. Tyrrell rejects it. However, he finds that the two weaker forms of Gaia—Coeveolutionary Gaia and Influential Gaia, which assert that there are close links between the evolution of life and the environment and that biology affects the physical and chemical environment—are both credible, but that it is not useful to use the term "Gaia" in this sense and that those two forms were already accepted and explained by the processes of natural selection and adaptation.<ref>{{citation |last=Tyrrell |first=Toby |authorlink= |date= 2013|title= On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9959.html |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=208 |isbn=9780691121581 |accessdate= }}</ref>
 
In a 2013 book-length evaluation of the Gaia hypothesis considering modern evidence from across the various relevant disciplines, Toby Tyrrell concluded that: "I believe Gaia is a dead end. Its study has, however, generated many new and thought provoking questions. While rejecting Gaia, we can at the same time appreciate Lovelock's originality and breadth of vision, and recognise that his audacious concept has helped to stimulate many new ideas about the Earth, and to champion a holistic approach to studying it".<ref>{{citation |last=Tyrrell |first=Toby |authorlink= |date= 2013|title= On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9959.html |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=209 |isbn=9780691121581 |accessdate= }}</ref> Elsewhere he presents his conclusion "The Gaia hypothesis is not an accurate picture of how our world works".<ref>{{Citation |last= Tyrrell |first = Toby |title =Gaia: the verdict is… |journal = New Scientist |volume = 220 |issue = 2940 |pages = 30–31 |date= 26 October 2013 |doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(13)62532-4}}</ref> This statement needs to be understood as referring to the "strong" and "moderate" forms of Gaia—that the biota obeys a principle that works to make Earth optimal (strength 5) or favourable for life (strength 4) or that it works as a homeostatic mechanism (strength 3). The latter is the "weakest" form of Gaia that Lovelock has advocated. Tyrrell rejects it. However, he finds that the two weaker forms of Gaia—Coeveolutionary Gaia and Influential Gaia, which assert that there are close links between the evolution of life and the environment and that biology affects the physical and chemical environment—are both credible, but that it is not useful to use the term "Gaia" in this sense and that those two forms were already accepted and explained by the processes of natural selection and adaptation.<ref>{{citation |last=Tyrrell |first=Toby |authorlink= |date= 2013|title= On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9959.html |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=208 |isbn=9780691121581 |accessdate= }}</ref>
 
+
2013年,托比·泰瑞尔在对盖亚假说的一本书长度评估中总结道:“我认为盖亚是一条死胡同。然而,它的研究产生了许多新的和发人深省的问题。在拒绝盖亚的同时,我们也能欣赏到洛夫洛克的独创性和广博的视野,并认识到他大胆的概念有助于激发许多关于地球的新思想,并倡导一种研究地球的整体方法。”在其他地方,他提出了自己的结论:“盖亚假说并不是一个关于如何进行的精确描述我们的世界在运转。”这种说法需要被理解为是指盖亚的“强大”和“温和”形式,生物群遵循的原则是使地球处于最佳状态(强度5)或有利于生命(强度4),或者它作为一种内稳态机制(强度3)。后者是洛夫洛克所提倡的盖亚的“最弱”形式。泰瑞尔拒绝了。然而,他发现盖亚的两种较弱的形式共同进化盖亚和有影响力的盖亚,它们断言生命的进化和环境之间有密切的联系,生物学影响物理和化学环境,这两种说法都是可信的,但在这个意义上使用“盖亚”一词是没有用的两种形式已经被自然选择和适应过程所接受和解释
 
Category:Cybernetics
 
Category:Cybernetics
  
153

个编辑