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文件:Theodoor Galle - Opportunity Seized, Opportunity Missed - WGA08445.jpg

Opportunity Seized, Opportunity Missed, engraving by Theodoor Galle, 1605

Opportunism is the practice of taking advantage of circumstances – with little regard for principles or with what the consequences are for others. Opportunist actions are expedient actions guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term can be applied to individual humans and living organisms, groups, organizations, styles, behaviors, and trends.

Opportunism is the practice of taking advantage of circumstances – with little regard for principles or with what the consequences are for others. Opportunist actions are expedient actions guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term can be applied to individual humans and living organisms, groups, organizations, styles, behaviors, and trends.

机会主义是利用环境的做法——很少考虑原则或其对他人的后果。机会主义行为是主要由自利动机引导的权宜之计。这个术语可以应用于个人和生物体、群体、组织、风格、行为和趋势。

Opportunism or "opportunistic behaviour" is an important concept in such fields of study as biology, transaction cost economics, game theory, ethics, psychology, sociology and politics.

机会主义或“机会主义行为”是生物学、交易成本经济学、博弈论、伦理学、心理学、社会学和政治学等学科中的一个重要概念。

Definitions

Opportunism is the conscious policy and practice of taking selfish advantage of circumstances.^[1]

Opportunism is the conscious policy and practice of taking selfish advantage of circumstances.

机会主义是有意识的利用环境自私的政策和做法。

Although in many societies opportunism often has a strong negative moral connotation, it may also be defined more neutrally as putting self-interest before other interests when there is an opportunity to do so, or flexibly adapting to changing circumstances to maximize self-interest (though usually in a way that negates some principle previously followed).

尽管在许多社会中，机会主义往往具有强烈的负面道德内涵，但它也可以被更中立地定义为: 当有机会这样做时，将自身利益置于其他利益之上，或者灵活地适应不断变化的环境，以最大限度地实现自身利益(尽管通常在某种程度上否定了先前遵循的某些原则)。

Opportunism is sometimes defined as the ability to capitalize on the mistakes of others: to exploit opportunities created by the errors, weaknesses or distractions of opponents to one's own advantage.^[2]

Opportunism is sometimes defined as the ability to capitalize on the mistakes of others: to exploit opportunities created by the errors, weaknesses or distractions of opponents to one's own advantage.E.g. Donald L. Luskin, "Newt's Bain Opportunism Is Mitt's Opportunity". Wall Street Journal, 17 January 2012.

机会主义有时被定义为利用他人的错误的能力: 利用对手的错误、弱点或分心所创造的机会为自己谋利。唐纳德 · L · 卢斯金，“纽特的贝恩机会主义是米特的机会”。《华尔街日报》2012年1月17日。

Taking a realistic or practical approach to a problem can involve "weak" forms of opportunism. For the sake of doing something that will work, or that successfully solves the problem, a previously agreed principle is knowingly compromised or disregarded - with the justification that alternative actions would, overall, have a worse effect.

对一个问题采取现实或实际的方法可能涉及“弱”形式的机会主义。为了做一些有效的事情，或者成功地解决问题，一个先前同意的原则被明知故犯地妥协或者被忽视——理由是替代行动总体上会产生更坏的效果。

In choosing or seizing opportunities, human opportunism is most likely to occur where:^[3]

In choosing or seizing opportunities, human opportunism is most likely to occur where:

在选择或抓住机会时，人类的机会主义最有可能发生在:

People can make the most gains at the least cost to themselves.
Relevant internal or external controls on their behavior are absent.
People are pressured to choose and act.

People can make the most gains at the least cost to themselves.
Relevant internal or external controls on their behavior are absent.
People are pressured to choose and act.

人们可以用最少的代价获得最大的收益。
对他们的行为缺乏相关的内部或外部控制。
人们被迫做出选择和行动。

Criticism of opportunism usually refers to a situation where beliefs and principles are tested or challenged.

对机会主义的批评通常指信仰和原则受到考验或挑战的情况。

Human opportunism should not be confused with "seeking opportunities", or "making use of opportunities when they arise". Opportunism refers to a specific way of responding to opportunities, which involves the element of self-interestedness and disregard for relevant (ethical) principles, or for intended or previously agreed goals, or for the shared concerns of a group.^[4]

Human opportunism should not be confused with "seeking opportunities", or "making use of opportunities when they arise". Opportunism refers to a specific way of responding to opportunities, which involves the element of self-interestedness and disregard for relevant (ethical) principles, or for intended or previously agreed goals, or for the shared concerns of a group.Luke Johnson, "A new lexicon to celebrate capitalism", Financial Times, October 25, 2011.

人类的机会主义不应该与“寻找机会”或“利用出现的机会”相混淆。机会主义是指对机会作出反应的一种特定方式，它包括自私自利和无视相关(伦理)原则、预期目标或先前商定的目标或一个群体的共同关心的因素。卢克•约翰逊(Luke Johnson) ，《庆祝资本主义的新词典》，英国《金融时报》，2011年10月25日。

However, opportunism is sometimes also redefined by businessmen simply as "the theory of discovering and pursuing opportunities".^[5] According to this redefinition, "opportunism" is a euphemism for "entrepreneurship".

However, opportunism is sometimes also redefined by businessmen simply as "the theory of discovering and pursuing opportunities".Shraga F. Biran, Opportunism: How to Change the World--One Idea at a Time. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011. According to this redefinition, "opportunism" is a euphemism for "entrepreneurship".

然而，机会主义有时也被商人简单地重新定义为“发现和追求机会的理论”。机会主义: 如何改变世界——一次一个想法。纽约: Farrar，Straus and Giroux，2011。根据这一重新定义，“机会主义”是“企业家精神”的委婉说法。

Etymology

In the early 19th century, the term "opportunist" as a noun or adjective was already known and used in several European languages, but initially, it rarely referred to political processes or to a political tendency. The English term "opportunism" is possibly borrowed originally from the Italian expression opportunismo. In 19th-century Italian politics, it meant "exploiting the prevailing circumstances or opportunities to gain an immediate advantage for oneself or one's own group".^[6] However, it is more likely that the English expression was directly borrowed from the French term, when it began to refer specifically to the opportunist Republicans, since the term first entered the English language in the early 1870s.^[7] In this sense the meaning "opportunism" has mutated: from those who claimed to advocate a principle (in the original French case, an amnesty for the Communards) but said that the time was not yet "opportune", to what may be thought of as the opposite - those who act without principle.^[8]

In the early 19th century, the term "opportunist" as a noun or adjective was already known and used in several European languages, but initially, it rarely referred to political processes or to a political tendency. The English term "opportunism" is possibly borrowed originally from the Italian expression opportunismo. In 19th-century Italian politics, it meant "exploiting the prevailing circumstances or opportunities to gain an immediate advantage for oneself or one's own group". However, it is more likely that the English expression was directly borrowed from the French term, when it began to refer specifically to the opportunist Republicans, since the term first entered the English language in the early 1870s.According to the Grand Larousse encyclopédique, opportunism was the name given to the cautious reformism and nationalism of French Republicans, who advocated moderate policies to consolidate the French Third Republic after the eviction of the monarchists. The French Opportunists did not call themselves by this name; rather, the term was used by French radicals to describe centrist and center-left politics in the country. Possibly, the term was originally popularized by Victor Henri Rochefort, Marquis de Rochefort-Luçay, who used it in his criticisms of Léon Gambetta. In this sense the meaning "opportunism" has mutated: from those who claimed to advocate a principle (in the original French case, an amnesty for the Communards) but said that the time was not yet "opportune", to what may be thought of as the opposite - those who act without principle."The World That Never Was: A True Story of Schemers, Anarchists, and Secret Agents", p. 153, Alex Butterworth, Vintage, 2010,

在19世纪早期，作为名词或形容词的“机会主义者”一词已经在几种欧洲语言中被熟知和使用，但最初，它很少涉及政治过程或政治倾向。英语中的“机会主义”一词可能是从意大利语中借用来的。在19世纪的意大利政治中，它意味着“利用当时的环境或机会为自己或自己的团体获得直接优势”。然而，更有可能的情况是，英语表达直接借自法语，当它开始具体指机会主义的共和党人，因为该词首次进入英语在19世纪70年代早期。根据大拉鲁斯百科全书，机会主义是给谨慎的改革主义和民族主义的法国共和党人的名字，他们主张温和的政策，以巩固法国第三共和国后，驱逐君主制。法国机会主义者并没有这样称呼自己，相反，这个词被法国激进分子用来描述这个国家的中间派和中间偏左的政治。也许，这个词最初是由维克多 · 亨利 · 罗什福尔，罗什福尔-卢塞侯爵推广的，他在批评莱昂 · 甘贝塔时使用了这个词。从这个意义上来说，“机会主义”的含义已经发生了变化: 从那些声称主张原则(在最初的法国案例中，是对公社的赦免) ，但表示时机尚不“合适”的人，变成了可能被认为是相反的人——那些行事没有原则的人。“从未存在过的世界: 阴谋家、无政府主义者和秘密特工的真实故事”，第153页，亚历克斯 · 巴特沃思，2010年,

In Latin, opportunus means opportune or favourable (opportunitas = opportunity); the word itself is a contraction of ob portus ("toward the harbour/entrance") or oppositum portus ("facing the harbour/entrance").

In Latin, opportunus means opportune or favourable (opportunitas = opportunity); the word itself is a contraction of ob portus ("toward the harbour/entrance") or oppositum portus ("facing the harbour/entrance").

在拉丁语中，chance us 的意思是“机会”或“有利的”; 单词本身是 ob portus (“面向港口/入口”)或 opositum portus (“面向港口/入口”)的缩写。

Moral connotations

= 道德内涵 =

As a style of human behavior, opportunism has the connotation of a lack of integrity, or doing something that is out of character (inconsistent). The underlying thought is that the price of the unrestrained pursuit of selfishness is behavioral inconsistency. Thus, opportunism involves compromising some or other principles normally upheld. However, the boundary between "legitimate self-interest" and "undesirable (or anti-social) selfishness" can be difficult to define; the definition relies on perspective.^[9]

As a style of human behavior, opportunism has the connotation of a lack of integrity, or doing something that is out of character (inconsistent). The underlying thought is that the price of the unrestrained pursuit of selfishness is behavioral inconsistency. Thus, opportunism involves compromising some or other principles normally upheld. However, the boundary between "legitimate self-interest" and "undesirable (or anti-social) selfishness" can be difficult to define; the definition relies on perspective.Louise Lucas and Andrew Bounds, "Unilever's pension move prompts strike". Financial Times, December 9, 2011.

作为一种人类行为方式，机会主义具有缺乏诚信的内涵，或者做一些不符合特征的事情(前后矛盾)。潜在的想法是，无节制地追求自私的代价是行为不一致。因此，机会主义包括妥协一些或其他通常坚持的原则。然而，“合法的自我利益”和“不受欢迎的(或反社会的)自私”之间的界限可能很难界定; 这个定义依赖于视角。路易丝 · 卢卡斯和安德鲁 · 邦兹，“联合利华的退休金举措引发罢工”。金融时报，2011年12月9日。

Some people regard an opportunist stance positively as a legitimate choice. Thus, the British Conservative statesman Stanley Baldwin is supposed to have quipped:^[10]

Some people regard an opportunist stance positively as a legitimate choice. Thus, the British Conservative statesman Stanley Baldwin is supposed to have quipped:The quotation is attributed to Baldwin, according to a Penguin Dictionary of Quotations, but the exact source is unclear.

有些人积极地认为机会主义的立场是合理的选择。因此，据说英国保守党政治家斯坦利 · 鲍德温(Stanley Baldwin)曾打过一句俏皮话: 根据《企鹅语录词典》(Penguin Dictionary of Quotions) ，这句话是鲍德温说的，但确切的来源尚不清楚。

"I would rather be an opportunist and float than go to the bottom with my principles around my neck" – Stanley Baldwin引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

The mind is its own place, and in it self
Can make a Heav'n of Hell, a Hell of Heav'n.
What matter where, if I be still the same,
And what I should be, all but less then he
Whom Thunder hath made greater? Here at least
We shall be free; th' Almighty hath not built
Here for his envy, will not drive us hence
Here we may reign secure, and in my choice
To reign is worth ambition though in Hell
Better to reign in Hell, then serve in Heav'n. (Book 1)

</ref>}}

心灵是它自己的地方，在它自己; 可以使一个天堂的地狱，一个地狱的天堂。无论我在哪里，如果我还是一样，无论我应该成为什么样的人，都比不上他; 雷声使谁更强大？至少在这里; 我们将获得自由; 万能的主没有建造; 在这里，因为他的嫉妒，将不会驱使我们离开: ; 在这里，我们可以统治安全，并在我的选择; 统治是值得的野心，虽然在地狱: ; 最好在地狱统治，然后在天堂服务。(Book 1) </ref>}}

In opportunism, life is viewed as holding an infinite amount of opportunity, where the pattern of one's responses to each defines their identity. It can also be viewed as striving to realize or express certain principles. However, the moral dilemma implied by opportunism concerns the conflict of self-interest with the interests of others, or with following a principle: either to do what one wants or to do "what is the right thing to do". Thus, substantively, opportunism refers to the acting on opportunities in a self-interested, biased or one-sided manner that conflicts or contrasts in some way with one or more general rule, law, norm, or principle.

In opportunism, life is viewed as holding an infinite amount of opportunity, where the pattern of one's responses to each defines their identity. It can also be viewed as striving to realize or express certain principles. However, the moral dilemma implied by opportunism concerns the conflict of self-interest with the interests of others, or with following a principle: either to do what one wants or to do "what is the right thing to do". Thus, substantively, opportunism refers to the acting on opportunities in a self-interested, biased or one-sided manner that conflicts or contrasts in some way with one or more general rule, law, norm, or principle.

在机会主义中，生活被视为拥有无限的机会，一个人对每个人的反应模式决定了他们的身份。它也可以被视为努力实现或表达某些原则。然而，机会主义所隐含的道德困境涉及到自身利益与他人利益的冲突，或者与遵循一个原则的冲突: 要么做自己想做的事，要么做“什么是正确的事”。因此，实质上，机会主义是指以一种自利、有偏见或片面的方式对机会采取行动，这种方式在某种程度上与一种或多种一般规则、法律、规范或原则相冲突或对立。

The fact that the self-interested action evokes this conflict, implies that the tendency to use opportunities to advantage is excessive or improper, the corollary being a deficiency of character or lack of propriety. Hence the term opportunism often has the pejorative connotation. Moralists may have a distaste for opportunism, insofar as opportunism implies the violation of a moral principle.

The fact that the self-interested action evokes this conflict, implies that the tendency to use opportunities to advantage is excessive or improper, the corollary being a deficiency of character or lack of propriety. Hence the term opportunism often has the pejorative connotation. Moralists may have a distaste for opportunism, insofar as opportunism implies the violation of a moral principle.

利己行为引起这种冲突的事实意味着利用机会谋取利益的倾向是过分或不当的，其结果是性格缺陷或不得体。因此，“机会主义”一词往往具有贬义内涵。道德家可能厌恶机会主义，因为机会主义意味着违反道德原则。

Human behaviour

= 人类行为 =

In human behavior, opportunism concerns the relationship between people's actions, and their basic principles when faced with opportunities and challenges. The opportunist seeks to gain a personal advantage when an opportunity presents itself, putting self-interest ahead of some other interest, in a way contrary either to a previously established principle or another principle that ought to have higher priority. Hence opportunist behavior is usually regarded at least as questionable or dubious, and at most as unjustifiable or completely illegitimate. Opportunism is regarded as unhealthy, as a disorder or as a character deficiency, if selfishly pursuing an opportunity is blatantly anti-social (involves disregard for the needs, wishes and interests of others). However, behavior can also be regarded as "opportunist" by scholars without any particular moral evaluation being made or implied (simply as a type of self-interested behavior).

In human behavior, opportunism concerns the relationship between people's actions, and their basic principles when faced with opportunities and challenges. The opportunist seeks to gain a personal advantage when an opportunity presents itself, putting self-interest ahead of some other interest, in a way contrary either to a previously established principle or another principle that ought to have higher priority. Hence opportunist behavior is usually regarded at least as questionable or dubious, and at most as unjustifiable or completely illegitimate. Opportunism is regarded as unhealthy, as a disorder or as a character deficiency, if selfishly pursuing an opportunity is blatantly anti-social (involves disregard for the needs, wishes and interests of others). However, behavior can also be regarded as "opportunist" by scholars without any particular moral evaluation being made or implied (simply as a type of self-interested behavior).

在人类行为中，机会主义关注的是人们在面对机遇和挑战时的行为与其基本原则之间的关系。机会主义者寻求在机会出现时获得个人优势，将自身利益置于其他利益之上，这种做法违背了先前确立的原则或应该具有更高优先地位的另一项原则。因此，机会主义者的行为通常被认为至少是有问题的或可疑的，最多是不合理的或完全不合法的。如果自私地追求机会是公然的反社会行为(包括无视他人的需要、愿望和利益) ，那么机会主义就被视为不健康、紊乱或性格缺陷。然而，行为也可以被学者视为“机会主义”，没有任何特定的道德评价作出或暗示(只是作为一种类型的自利行为)。

The sociology and psychology of human opportunism is related to the study of gambling behavior, and what kind of motivation and organizational culture is involved. Both the element of risk and opportunity play a role. To be opportunist in behavior, a person or group must:

人类机会主义的社会学和心理学研究的是赌博行为，以及赌博的动机和组织文化。风险因素和机会因素都发挥了作用。要在行为上成为机会主义者，一个人或一个团体必须:

refuse to take a risk that would reduce the influence, support, wealth or popularity, even although taking the risk is consistent with the principles the person or group uphold.
take a risk for the purpose of gaining/maintaining influence, support, wealth or popularity, although taking this risk is inconsistent with the principles being espoused.
take advantage of an opportunity to increase influence, support, wealth or popularity, although it is not consistent with the principles being upheld.
refuse to respond to an opportunity, only because responding to it might forfeit influence, support, wealth or popularity, even although taking the opportunity would in truth be consistent with the principles being subscribed to.

refuse to take a risk that would reduce the influence, support, wealth or popularity, even although taking the risk is consistent with the principles the person or group uphold.
take a risk for the purpose of gaining/maintaining influence, support, wealth or popularity, although taking this risk is inconsistent with the principles being espoused.
take advantage of an opportunity to increase influence, support, wealth or popularity, although it is not consistent with the principles being upheld.
refuse to respond to an opportunity, only because responding to it might forfeit influence, support, wealth or popularity, even although taking the opportunity would in truth be consistent with the principles being subscribed to.

拒绝承担会减低影响力、支持、财富或受欢迎程度的风险，即使承担风险符合个人或团体所秉持的原则。
冒险是为了获得/维持影响力、支持、财富或受欢迎程度，虽然冒险与所奉行的原则并不一致。
利用机会增加影响力、支持、财富或受欢迎程度，尽管这与所坚持的原则并不一致。
拒绝回应机会，只是因为回应机会可能会丧失影响力、支持、财富或声望，即使把握机会实际上符合所认同的原则。

Thus, the opportunity exploited for selfish ends can itself exist either because an action is taken, or because of deliberate inaction (when action should really have been taken). The propensity to engage in such kinds of behaviours depends a great deal on the presence or absence of personal characteristics such as integrity, moral character, personal insight or self-awareness, personal flexibility and balance. It also depends on the ability to judge the consequences of different courses of action correctly. Strong emotions and desires may also play a role, and much may depend on how permissive a person, group or organization is (see permissive society). These factors influence the capacity to know "where to draw the line" appropriately, and regulate one's own behavior so that it remains consistent. Much also depends on the beliefs people happen to have about themselves and the world they live in, and on the morale of an organization.

因此，为自私目的利用的机会本身可能存在，要么是因为采取了行动，要么是因为故意不采取行动(当行动应该真正采取的时候)。从事这类行为的倾向在很大程度上取决于是否存在个人特征，如正直、道德品质、个人洞察力或自我意识、个人灵活性和平衡性。它还取决于能否正确判断不同行动方针的后果。强烈的情感和欲望也可能起到一定作用，这在很大程度上取决于一个人、一个团体或一个组织有多宽容(见宽容的社会)。这些因素影响人们适当地知道“界限在哪里”的能力，并调节自己的行为，使其保持一致。这在很大程度上还取决于人们对自己和他们所生活的世界的信念，以及一个组织的士气。

An opportunist's motive always involves an element of selfishness.^[11] Psychologically, it follows that opportunism always assumes a basic ability to make one's own choices, and decide to act in a way that serves one's own interest. In turn, that presupposes at least some basic self-motivation, inner direction, inventiveness, and behavioral freedom; subjectively, an opportunist must at least be able to recognize and respond to opportunities when they are there.

An opportunist's motive always involves an element of selfishness. Psychologically, it follows that opportunism always assumes a basic ability to make one's own choices, and decide to act in a way that serves one's own interest. In turn, that presupposes at least some basic self-motivation, inner direction, inventiveness, and behavioral freedom; subjectively, an opportunist must at least be able to recognize and respond to opportunities when they are there.

机会主义者的动机总是带有自私的成分。从心理学角度来看，机会主义总是假定一个人具备做出自己选择的基本能力，并决定以符合自身利益的方式行事。反过来，这至少预先假定了一些基本的自我激励、内在方向、创造力和行为自由; 主观上，机会主义者必须至少能够识别和回应机会，当它们存在的时候。

Eight main contexts

= 八大背景 = =

Personalities and beliefs are shaped by the specific environment where they form. It is likely that the possibilities for opportunist behavior are promoted in contexts where there is not only an incentive to engage in them, but also where it is also extremely difficult for some reason to remain behaviourally consistent, or where ordinary constraints on behavior are lacking. In that case, opportunist behavior does not seem to have much adverse effect or consequence, at least in the short term, compared to the much greater benefits of engaging in it. Eight main contexts are referred to in the literature:

个性和信仰是由其形成的特定环境所塑造的。机会主义行为的可能性很可能是在这样的背景下提升的: 不仅有参与机会主义行为的动机，而且由于某些原因，保持行为一致性极其困难，或者缺乏对行为的普通约束。在这种情况下，机会主义行为似乎没有太多的不利影响或后果，至少在短期内，相比之下，从事它的好处大得多。文献中提到了八个主要背景:

Power: according to Lord Acton's famous dictum, "all power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely". If there are only weak sanctions against unprincipled behavior, this creates a setting where opportunist behavior can flourish, and if the positions of people are very unequal (in terms of power, wealth, status, knowledge or strength) the possibility exists that some will take advantage of the disadvantage of others.
Advantages: the prevalence of opportunist behavior is likely to be influenced by the perception that the pay-off or advantage of engaging in it, outweighs possible disadvantages or penalties. Opportunism is facilitated if the situation permits an actor to appropriate the gains or advantages to be had from activity to themselves while shifting the costs, blame and disadvantages to others. This may be regarded as unfair competition.
Predicaments: The propensity of opportunist behavior is influenced by the general life-situations that people find themselves in. If one's own position is strong and secure, it may be much easier to be an opportunist – because if it would result in losses and failures, those losses and failures can be easily sustained given the resources available. Conversely, a person's existence may be so precarious, that he has "nothing to lose" by seizing any opportunity available to benefit himself. Opportunist behavior can be self-reinforcing: if there is a lot of opportunism, then not to be opportunist oneself would mean that competitors take advantage of that, and therefore people can be forced into an opportunist role as a defensive strategy.
Resources: if a new bonanza (an abundantly available resource, or market) is discovered, accessible or opened up, people may try to "grab what they can" without regard to the consequences for others, perhaps with the thought that if they do not avail themselves of this opportunity, others will (and that if others do, it disadvantages them). Examples might be a gold rush and the tragedy of the commons. In this case, opportunist behavior may be facilitated, especially if precise rules for how a resource should be distributed are lacking, or if it is unclear who really owns it, or if proper use cannot be enforced.^[12]
Information: opportunism is facilitated in the absence of relevant information, knowledge or awareness about the interests and values involved in a situation or activity, making it difficult to identify and judge all the consequences in pursuing an opportunity. This could be due to deliberate disinformation. Self-interest may be followed because it is unclear or undecided what other interests are at stake, or because a shared morality is lacking. If the situation is one where shared rules are lacking, where it is quite uncertain what the relevant rule to apply is, or where everything is very uncertain or chaotic, plenty of scopes exists for opportunist behavior.^[13]
Competition: in a situation of intense conflict, competition or war,^[14] it may be that people will do anything to survive, win, retain support, or defend themselves, never mind the principles, ideals or beliefs they had. Ordinary laws and "rules of the game" break down, creating new opportunities for those positioned to take advantage of them.
Awareness: if people are for some or other reason deceiving themselves about the real consequences of their actions, they are more likely to initiate or condone opportunist behaviour; if they were more aware, that wouldn't happen to the same extent. Opportunism is facilitated if for any reason there is a low level of awareness that it is happening. Perceptions of the strengths and vulnerabilities of others and oneself may play an important role.
Success: opportunism often involves the presence of a very strong desire to be popular, to exercise influence or to succeed in making gains. That motivation can promote the urge to win something "by any means necessary", even if it means to "cut corners" and do things not consistent with relevant principles. If people are for some reason motivated "to do anything at all to achieve success", they are more likely to engage in opportunist behavior for that very reason.

Power: according to Lord Acton's famous dictum, "all power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely". If there are only weak sanctions against unprincipled behavior, this creates a setting where opportunist behavior can flourish, and if the positions of people are very unequal (in terms of power, wealth, status, knowledge or strength) the possibility exists that some will take advantage of the disadvantage of others.
Advantages: the prevalence of opportunist behavior is likely to be influenced by the perception that the pay-off or advantage of engaging in it, outweighs possible disadvantages or penalties. Opportunism is facilitated if the situation permits an actor to appropriate the gains or advantages to be had from activity to themselves while shifting the costs, blame and disadvantages to others. This may be regarded as unfair competition.
Predicaments: The propensity of opportunist behavior is influenced by the general life-situations that people find themselves in. If one's own position is strong and secure, it may be much easier to be an opportunist – because if it would result in losses and failures, those losses and failures can be easily sustained given the resources available. Conversely, a person's existence may be so precarious, that he has "nothing to lose" by seizing any opportunity available to benefit himself. Opportunist behavior can be self-reinforcing: if there is a lot of opportunism, then not to be opportunist oneself would mean that competitors take advantage of that, and therefore people can be forced into an opportunist role as a defensive strategy.
Resources: if a new bonanza (an abundantly available resource, or market) is discovered, accessible or opened up, people may try to "grab what they can" without regard to the consequences for others, perhaps with the thought that if they do not avail themselves of this opportunity, others will (and that if others do, it disadvantages them). Examples might be a gold rush and the tragedy of the commons. In this case, opportunist behavior may be facilitated, especially if precise rules for how a resource should be distributed are lacking, or if it is unclear who really owns it, or if proper use cannot be enforced.Borzou Daragahi, "Libya: Back to the bad old ways". Financial times, February 16, 2012.
Information: opportunism is facilitated in the absence of relevant information, knowledge or awareness about the interests and values involved in a situation or activity, making it difficult to identify and judge all the consequences in pursuing an opportunity. This could be due to deliberate disinformation. Self-interest may be followed because it is unclear or undecided what other interests are at stake, or because a shared morality is lacking. If the situation is one where shared rules are lacking, where it is quite uncertain what the relevant rule to apply is, or where everything is very uncertain or chaotic, plenty of scopes exists for opportunist behavior."Government's sudden need to debate terror bill smacks of opportunism", The Globe and Mail, 22 April 2013.
Competition: in a situation of intense conflict, competition or war,Farah Stockman, "Opportunist of war". The Boston Globe, 13 december 2011. it may be that people will do anything to survive, win, retain support, or defend themselves, never mind the principles, ideals or beliefs they had. Ordinary laws and "rules of the game" break down, creating new opportunities for those positioned to take advantage of them.
Awareness: if people are for some or other reason deceiving themselves about the real consequences of their actions, they are more likely to initiate or condone opportunist behaviour; if they were more aware, that wouldn't happen to the same extent. Opportunism is facilitated if for any reason there is a low level of awareness that it is happening. Perceptions of the strengths and vulnerabilities of others and oneself may play an important role.
Success: opportunism often involves the presence of a very strong desire to be popular, to exercise influence or to succeed in making gains. That motivation can promote the urge to win something "by any means necessary", even if it means to "cut corners" and do things not consistent with relevant principles. If people are for some reason motivated "to do anything at all to achieve success", they are more likely to engage in opportunist behavior for that very reason.

权力: 根据阿克顿勋爵(Lord Acton)的名言，“所有权力都会腐败，绝对权力绝对会腐败”。如果对无原则的行为只有微弱的制裁，这就创造了一个机会主义行为可以蓬勃发展的环境，如果人们的地位非常不平等(在权力、财富、地位、知识或力量方面)的可能性存在，一些人将利用其他人的劣势。
优势: 机会主义行为的盛行很可能受到这样一种观念的影响，即从事这种行为的回报或优势大于可能的劣势或惩罚。如果情况允许一个行为者将从活动中获得的收益或好处据为己有，同时将成本、责任和不利因素转嫁给他人，那么机会主义就会得到促进。这可能被视为不公平竞争。困境: 机会主义行为的倾向受到人们所处的一般生活环境的影响。如果一个人的地位稳固可靠，那么成为一个机会主义者可能会容易得多——因为如果它会导致损失和失败，那么在现有资源的情况下，这些损失和失败可以很容易地维持下去。相反，一个人的生存可能是如此不稳定，以至于他抓住任何有利于自己的机会，“没有什么可以失去”。机会主义者的行为可以是自我强化的: 如果有很多机会主义者，那么自己不成为机会主义者就意味着竞争者会利用这一点，因此人们可以被迫成为机会主义者，作为一种防御策略。
资源: 如果一个新的富矿(一个大量可用的资源或市场)被发现、获取或开放，人们可能会试图“抓住他们能抓住的东西”而不考虑对他人的后果，也许他们认为如果他们不利用这个机会，其他人会(如果其他人这样做，这对他们不利)。例子可能是淘金热和公地悲剧。在这种情况下，机会主义行为可能会得到促进，特别是如果缺乏关于资源应该如何分配的精确规则，或者不清楚谁真正拥有资源，或者不能强制执行正确的使用。Borzou Daragahi，“利比亚: 回到糟糕的老路上”。英国《金融时报》2012年2月16日。
信息: 在缺乏有关信息、知识或对某一情况或活动所涉利益和价值观的认识的情况下，机会主义就容易滋生，因此难以确定和判断在寻求机会过程中产生的所有后果。这可能是故意造假造成的。利己主义之所以受到追随，可能是因为它不清楚或尚未决定其他利益处于危险之中，也可能是因为缺乏一种共同的道德观。如果缺乏共同的规则，不确定适用的相关规则是什么，或者一切都非常不确定或混乱，那么机会主义行为就存在大量的空间。“政府突然需要辩论恐怖主义法案带有机会主义的味道”，《环球邮报》，2013年4月22日。
竞争: 在激烈冲突、竞争或战争的情况下，法拉 · 斯托克曼，“战争的机会主义者”。波士顿环球报，2011年12月13日。人们可能会为了生存、赢得胜利、保持支持或捍卫自己而做任何事情，更不用说他们所拥有的原则、理想或信念了。普通的法律和“游戏规则”崩溃了，为那些处于有利地位的人创造了新的机会。
意识: 如果人们出于某种或其他原因，对自己行为的真正后果自欺欺人，他们更有可能主动或宽恕机会主义行为; 如果他们更有意识，这种情况就不会发生在同样程度上。如果出于任何原因，对机会主义的认识水平较低，机会主义就会得到促进。对他人和自己的长处和弱点的认识可能起到重要作用。
成功: 机会主义往往表现出受欢迎、施加影响或成功获利的强烈愿望。这种动机可以促使人们“不惜一切必要手段”去赢得一些东西，即使这意味着“偷工减料”，做一些与相关原则不符的事情。如果人们出于某种原因被激励去“做任何事情来获得成功”，他们更有可能因为这个原因而从事机会主义行为。

Five main organizational influences

五大组织影响力

Opportunist behavior is also strongly influenced by the organizational context in which it occurs.

机会主义者的行为也受其所处的组织环境的强烈影响。

Controls: some organizations may have a code of behavior or set of rules that makes opportunist behavior difficult because organizational policy sets clear and immediate penalties for such behavior. Other organizations may be so loosely structured and so lacking in controls and sanctions regulating behaviour, that opportunism becomes almost unavoidable.
Rationale: much depends on whether the organization really has a principled basis for its activities to start out with (a clearly defined, agreed understanding about the relationship between goals and the means to achieve them). Lacking such a principled foundation, the organization may find itself constantly trying to compensate for both opportunist errors and factional errors.
Norms and values: behavior that some organizations regard as "opportunist" may be perfectly acceptable in others, or tolerated as normal. Sometimes expectations of behavior are made explicit by the organization with the aid of formal rules communicated to members. Sometimes they are only implicit and informal - possibly because formal rules are not easy to formulate, or to enforce, or because it is assumed that members understand and share relevant norms and values.
Size: in general, the larger an organization is in terms of members, the more scope its members have to engage in opportunist behavior, since the larger it is, the less individual members are practically able to check or control the behavior of many other members, and the more possibility there is that groups of members will develop self-serving interests that deviate from the stated goals of the organization.^[15]
Purpose: the scope for opportunism depends very much on the nature and goals of the organization itself, and on the strength and integrity of its leadership. If for example, the organization sets itself the task to exploit risks and opportunities to advantage, then no matter what its size is, it tends to facilitate opportunist behavior. If, on the other hand, the aim of the organization is to carefully conserve a state of affairs or belief system, this is much less likely to attract opportunists.

Controls: some organizations may have a code of behavior or set of rules that makes opportunist behavior difficult because organizational policy sets clear and immediate penalties for such behavior. Other organizations may be so loosely structured and so lacking in controls and sanctions regulating behaviour, that opportunism becomes almost unavoidable.
Rationale: much depends on whether the organization really has a principled basis for its activities to start out with (a clearly defined, agreed understanding about the relationship between goals and the means to achieve them). Lacking such a principled foundation, the organization may find itself constantly trying to compensate for both opportunist errors and factional errors.
Norms and values: behavior that some organizations regard as "opportunist" may be perfectly acceptable in others, or tolerated as normal. Sometimes expectations of behavior are made explicit by the organization with the aid of formal rules communicated to members. Sometimes they are only implicit and informal - possibly because formal rules are not easy to formulate, or to enforce, or because it is assumed that members understand and share relevant norms and values.
Size: in general, the larger an organization is in terms of members, the more scope its members have to engage in opportunist behavior, since the larger it is, the less individual members are practically able to check or control the behavior of many other members, and the more possibility there is that groups of members will develop self-serving interests that deviate from the stated goals of the organization.Bogdan Mieczkowski, Dysfunctional Bureaucracy: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991, p. 37.
Purpose: the scope for opportunism depends very much on the nature and goals of the organization itself, and on the strength and integrity of its leadership. If for example, the organization sets itself the task to exploit risks and opportunities to advantage, then no matter what its size is, it tends to facilitate opportunist behavior. If, on the other hand, the aim of the organization is to carefully conserve a state of affairs or belief system, this is much less likely to attract opportunists.

控制: 一些组织可能有一套行为准则或规则，使机会主义行为难以实施，因为组织政策对这种行为设置了明确和直接的惩罚。其他组织可能结构松散，对行为缺乏管制和制裁，机会主义几乎不可避免。基本原理: 很大程度上取决于组织是否真的有一个原则性的基础来开始它的活动(一个明确的定义，对目标之间的关系和实现它们的方法达成一致的理解)。由于缺乏这样一个原则性的基础，组织可能会发现自己不断地试图弥补机会主义错误和派系错误。

规范和价值观: 一些组织认为是“机会主义者”的行为可能在其他组织中完全可以接受，或者作为正常行为被容忍。有时候，组织会借助传达给成员的正式规则，明确地表达对行为的期望。有时它们只是隐含的和非正式的——可能是因为正式的规则不容易制定或执行，或者是因为假定成员理解并分享相关的规范和价值观。
规模: 一般来说，一个组织的成员越大，其成员从事机会主义行为的范围就越大，因为规模越大，个别成员实际上能够检查或控制许多其他成员的行为的能力就越小，成员群体偏离组织既定目标的自利行为的可能性就越大。Bogdan Mieczkowski，功能失调的官僚制: 一个比较与历史的视角。拉纳姆: 美国大学出版社，1991年，第37页。
宗旨: 机会主义的范围在很大程度上取决于组织本身的性质和目标，以及其领导的力量和诚信。例如，如果组织为自己设定了利用风险和机会获取优势的任务，那么无论其规模如何，它都倾向于促进机会主义行为。另一方面，如果该组织的目的是谨慎地保存一种事态或信仰体系，这就不太可能吸引机会主义者。

Use of the term in specific areas

这个术语在特定领域的使用

Professional

= 专业 = =

In professional ethics, the concept of opportunism plays a role in defining criteria for professional integrity.^[16] In providing a service, a professional may have personal discretion (choice or leeway) about how to provide the service. Professionals may, to a great extent, make their own judgements, interpretations, and decisions about the exact approach to take—without an explicit rule that they must perform in a specific way. Such a situation can be exploited with opportunist motives that are contrary to the stated ethics of a profession. Consequently, it becomes necessary—for the sake of preserving professional integrity—to explicate "guiding norms" that define the boundaries of acceptable practice, or to divide up roles in such a way that different people in an organization can effectively check and control what their colleagues actually do ("to keep them honest").

In professional ethics, the concept of opportunism plays a role in defining criteria for professional integrity.Chester Barnard has a chapter on the "theory of opportunism" in his classic work The Functions of the Executive (Harvard University Press, originally published in 1938). In providing a service, a professional may have personal discretion (choice or leeway) about how to provide the service. Professionals may, to a great extent, make their own judgements, interpretations, and decisions about the exact approach to take—without an explicit rule that they must perform in a specific way. Such a situation can be exploited with opportunist motives that are contrary to the stated ethics of a profession. Consequently, it becomes necessary—for the sake of preserving professional integrity—to explicate "guiding norms" that define the boundaries of acceptable practice, or to divide up roles in such a way that different people in an organization can effectively check and control what their colleagues actually do ("to keep them honest").

在职业道德中，机会主义的概念在界定职业诚信的标准中起着重要作用。切斯特•巴纳德(Chester Barnard)在其经典著作《行政人员的职能》(The Functional of The Executive，哈佛大学出版社，最初出版于1938年)中有一章是关于“机会主义理论”的。在提供服务时，专业人员可以自行决定如何提供服务。在很大程度上，专业人员可能会对所采取的确切方法作出自己的判断、解释和决定ーー而不必制定明确的规则，规定他们必须以特定的方式执行。这种情况可能被机会主义者利用，其动机与所宣称的职业道德背道而驰。因此，为了维护职业操守，有必要阐明界定可接受实践边界的“指导准则”，或者以这样一种方式划分角色，即一个组织中的不同人员可以有效地检查和控制他们的同事实际上在做什么(“让他们保持诚实”)。

Intellectual

The term intellectual opportunism—the pursuit of intellectual opportunities with a selfish, ulterior motive not consistent with relevant principles—refers to certain self-serving tendencies of the human intellect, often involving professional producers and disseminators of ideas, who work with idea-formation all the time. The phenomenon of intellectual opportunism is frequently associated by its critics with careerism. When human knowledge becomes a tradeable good in a market of ideas, all sorts of opportunities arise for huckstering, swindling, haggling and hustling with information in ways which are regarded as unprincipled, dubious or involve deceit of some sort.

知识分子机会主义这个术语ーー以不符合相关原则的自私、不可告人的动机追求知识机会ーー指的是人类智力的某些自私倾向，往往涉及专业的思想生产者和传播者，他们始终与思想的形成一起工作。知识分子的机会主义现象经常被其批评者与野心家联系在一起。当人类的知识成为思想市场上可以交易的商品时，各种各样的机会就会出现，以被认为是缺乏原则、可疑或涉及某种欺骗的方式来兜售、诈骗、讨价还价和与信息争夺。

The intellectual opportunist adapts his intellectual concerns, pursuits and utterances to "fit with the trend/fashion" or "fit the situation" or "with what sells" – with the (ulterior) motive of gaining personal popularity/support, protecting intellectual coherence, obtaining personal credit, acquiring privilege or status, persuading others, ingratiating himself, taking advantage or making money. Normally this assumes some degree of intellectual flexibility, agility or persuasiveness.

The intellectual opportunist adapts his intellectual concerns, pursuits and utterances to "fit with the trend/fashion" or "fit the situation" or "with what sells" – with the (ulterior) motive of gaining personal popularity/support, protecting intellectual coherence, obtaining personal credit, acquiring privilege or status, persuading others, ingratiating himself, taking advantage or making money. Normally this assumes some degree of intellectual flexibility, agility or persuasiveness.

知识分子机会主义者将自己的知识关注、追求和言论调整为“符合潮流/时尚”或“符合情况”或“符合销售”——(不可告人的)动机是获得个人知名度/支持、保护知识连贯性、获得个人信用、获得特权或地位、说服他人、讨好自己、利用他人或赚钱。通常情况下，这需要一定程度的智力灵活性、敏捷性或说服力。

Sexual

Sexual opportunism is the selfish pursuit of sexual opportunities for their own sake when they arise, often with the negative moral connotation that in some way it "takes advantage" of others, or "makes use" of, or "exploits", other persons for sexual purposes. Sexual opportunism is sometimes also defined as the use of sexual favors for selfish purposes quite unrelated to the sexual activity, in which case taking a sexual opportunity is merely the means to achieve a quite different purpose, for example, to advance one's career or obtain status or money.^[17] This may be accepted or tolerated, or it may be criticized because the concerns of others are not adequately taken into consideration.

Sexual opportunism is the selfish pursuit of sexual opportunities for their own sake when they arise, often with the negative moral connotation that in some way it "takes advantage" of others, or "makes use" of, or "exploits", other persons for sexual purposes. Sexual opportunism is sometimes also defined as the use of sexual favors for selfish purposes quite unrelated to the sexual activity, in which case taking a sexual opportunity is merely the means to achieve a quite different purpose, for example, to advance one's career or obtain status or money.Graham Scambler, "Sex Work Stigma: Opportunist Migrants in London". Sociology, vol. 41, no. 6, December 2007, pp. 1079-1096. This may be accepted or tolerated, or it may be criticized because the concerns of others are not adequately taken into consideration.

性机会主义是当性机会出现时，为了自己的利益而自私地追求性机会，通常带有负面的道德内涵，即在某种程度上它“利用”他人，或“利用”或“剥削”他人以达到性目的。性机会主义有时也被定义为出于与性活动完全无关的自私目的而利用性好处，在这种情况下，利用性机会仅仅是为了达到一个完全不同的目的的手段，例如，为了提升一个人的事业或获得地位或金钱。Graham Scambler，“性工作的耻辱: 伦敦的机会主义移民”。社会学，第一卷。41号，不。2007年12月6日，pp。1079-1096.这可能被接受或容忍，也可能因为没有充分考虑到其他人的关切而受到批评。

To the extent that the feelings, wishes, intentions, purposes, interests or norms of others are not adequately considered in the pursuit of sexual gratification, it then conflicts with some or other principle for appropriate behavior, and it may involve deceit or dishonesty (for example, the deliberate exploitation of sexual innocence). In that case, sexual opportunist is considered to lack sexual and/or personal integrity. In a clinical or scientific sense, sexual opportunism is often straightforwardly described as observable sexual promiscuity or the observable propensity to engage in casual sex, whatever the motive.^[18]

To the extent that the feelings, wishes, intentions, purposes, interests or norms of others are not adequately considered in the pursuit of sexual gratification, it then conflicts with some or other principle for appropriate behavior, and it may involve deceit or dishonesty (for example, the deliberate exploitation of sexual innocence). In that case, sexual opportunist is considered to lack sexual and/or personal integrity. In a clinical or scientific sense, sexual opportunism is often straightforwardly described as observable sexual promiscuity or the observable propensity to engage in casual sex, whatever the motive.

如果在追求性满足的过程中没有充分考虑他人的感受、愿望、意图、目的、兴趣或规范，那么它就会与适当行为的某些或其他原则相冲突，而且它可能涉及欺骗或不诚实(例如，故意利用性纯真)。在这种情况下，性机会主义者被认为缺乏性和/或人格完整性。在临床或科学意义上，性机会主义通常被直接描述为可观察到的性滥交或可观察到的随意性行为倾向，无论其动机如何。

Evolutionary

= 进化 = =

In the theory of evolution, "evolutionary opportunism" refers to a specific pattern of development in the history of a species. The behavior, culture or body part of a species that long ago evolved to serve a particular purpose or function may subsequently lend itself to a very different positive purpose or function that helps the species to survive.^[19] Thus, in a new stage of evolution, a long-existing behavior, culture, or physical characteristic can respond to a wholly new opportunity and acquire a new role. It turns out to have new advantages or potential benefits the species previously never used—and, therefore, the species retains an adaptation even if the original purpose it served is long gone.

In the theory of evolution, "evolutionary opportunism" refers to a specific pattern of development in the history of a species. The behavior, culture or body part of a species that long ago evolved to serve a particular purpose or function may subsequently lend itself to a very different positive purpose or function that helps the species to survive.Michael Ruse, The Oxford handbook of philosophy of biology. Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 199. Thus, in a new stage of evolution, a long-existing behavior, culture, or physical characteristic can respond to a wholly new opportunity and acquire a new role. It turns out to have new advantages or potential benefits the species previously never used—and, therefore, the species retains an adaptation even if the original purpose it served is long gone.

在进化论中，“进化机会主义”指的是一个物种历史上特定的发展模式。一个物种的行为、文化或身体的一部分，很久以前就进化为服务于一个特定的目的或功能，随后可能借给自己一个非常不同的积极的目的或功能，帮助物种生存。牛津生物哲学手册。牛津大学出版社，2008，第199页。因此，在一个新的进化阶段，一个长期存在的行为、文化或身体特征能够响应一个全新的机会并获得一个新的角色。事实证明，这种技术具有以前从未使用过的新优势或潜在好处ーー因此，即使它最初的用途早已不复存在，这种技术仍能保留适应性。

Biological

In biology, an opportunist organism is generally defined as a species that can live and thrive in variable environmental conditions, and sustain itself from a number of different food sources, or can rapidly take advantage of favorable conditions when they arise, because the species is behaviorally sufficiently flexible. Such species can for example postpone reproduction, or stay dormant, until conditions make growth and reproduction possible. In the biological disciplines, opportunistic behavior is studied in fields such as evolutionary biology, ecology, epidemiology, and etiology, where moral or judgmental overtones do not apply (see also opportunistic pathogens, opportunistic predation, phoresis, and parasitism).

In biology, an opportunist organism is generally defined as a species that can live and thrive in variable environmental conditions, and sustain itself from a number of different food sources, or can rapidly take advantage of favorable conditions when they arise, because the species is behaviorally sufficiently flexible. Such species can for example postpone reproduction, or stay dormant, until conditions make growth and reproduction possible. In the biological disciplines, opportunistic behavior is studied in fields such as evolutionary biology, ecology, epidemiology, and etiology, where moral or judgmental overtones do not apply (see also opportunistic pathogens, opportunistic predation, phoresis, and parasitism).

在生物学中，机会主义有机体通常被定义为能够在变化的环境条件下生存和繁荣的物种，能够通过许多不同的食物来源维持自己的生存，或者能够在有利条件出现时迅速利用这些条件，因为这些物种在行为上具有足够的灵活性。例如，这些物种可以推迟繁殖，或者保持休眠状态，直到条件使生长和繁殖成为可能。在生物学学科中，机会主义行为是在进化生物学、生态学、流行病学和病因学等领域进行研究的，在这些领域中，道德或判断的含义不适用(也可参见机会主义病原体、机会主义捕食、泳和寄生)。

In microbiology, opportunism refers to the ability of a normally non-pathogenic microorganism to act as a pathogen in certain circumstances. Opportunist micro-organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) are ones that, when they invade the host organism, can cause infection in the host organism, but cause real disease only if the natural defenses, resistance or immune system of the host organism are lowered (see opportunistic infection). In macrobiology, opportunist behaviour by an organism generally means that it is able to seize and use diverse opportunities in its environment to survive and grow. If one single opportunity or need occurs, the organism can "improvise" a response to it with whatever resources it has available, even if what it can do is not the best possible strategy.

In microbiology, opportunism refers to the ability of a normally non-pathogenic microorganism to act as a pathogen in certain circumstances. Opportunist micro-organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) are ones that, when they invade the host organism, can cause infection in the host organism, but cause real disease only if the natural defenses, resistance or immune system of the host organism are lowered (see opportunistic infection). In macrobiology, opportunist behaviour by an organism generally means that it is able to seize and use diverse opportunities in its environment to survive and grow. If one single opportunity or need occurs, the organism can "improvise" a response to it with whatever resources it has available, even if what it can do is not the best possible strategy.

在微生物学中，机会主义是指一个正常的非致病微生物在某些情况下作为病原体的能力。机会主义微生物(如细菌、病毒、真菌和原生动物)是当它们入侵宿主生物体时，能够引起宿主生物体的感染，但只有当宿主生物体的自然防御、抗性或免疫系统降低时才会引起真正的疾病(见机会性感染)。在宏观生物学中，有机体的机会主义行为通常意味着它能够抓住和利用其环境中的各种机会来生存和成长。如果出现一个机会或需求，有机体可以利用它所拥有的一切资源“临时”做出反应，即使它所能做的不是最好的策略。

Some animals also show this behavior for group-foraging. In other words, they try to optimize the feeding intake of their colony. The Australian stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria, for instance, has several workers search for an area full of rich resources, and will then recruit heavily in this area until the resources are depleted."^[20]

Some animals also show this behavior for group-foraging. In other words, they try to optimize the feeding intake of their colony. The Australian stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria, for instance, has several workers search for an area full of rich resources, and will then recruit heavily in this area until the resources are depleted."

有些动物在群体觅食时也表现出这种行为。换句话说，它们试图优化蚁群的摄食量。例如，澳大利亚的无刺蜜蜂“碳酸四角蜂”就有几只工蜂在寻找一个资源丰富的地区，然后在这个地区大量招募蜜蜂，直到资源耗尽

Political

The term "opportunism" is often used in politics and political science, and by activists campaigning for a cause. The political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli as described in The Prince is often regarded as a classic manual of opportunist scheming.^[21] Political opportunism is interpreted in different ways, but usually refers to one or more of the following:

The term "opportunism" is often used in politics and political science, and by activists campaigning for a cause. The political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli as described in The Prince is often regarded as a classic manual of opportunist scheming. Political opportunism is interpreted in different ways, but usually refers to one or more of the following:

“机会主义”这个词经常被用于政治和政治科学，以及为某一事业而进行活动的积极分子。《王子》中所描述的尼可罗·马基亚维利的政治哲学常常被视为机会主义阴谋的经典手册。政治机会主义有不同的解释，但通常指下列一种或多种情况:

a political style of aiming to increase one's political influence at almost any price, or a political style that involves seizing every and any opportunity to extend political influence, whenever such opportunities arise.
The practice of abandoning or compromising, in reality, some important political principles that were previously held, in the process of trying to increase one's political power and influence.
a trend of thought, or a political tendency, seeking to make political capital out of situations with the main aim being that of gaining more influence, prestige or support, instead of truly winning people over to a principled position or improving their political understanding.
believing that there is much more at work behind the scenes for the combining of alliances, making of pacts and signing of agreements for a cause.
having experiencing suffering for a political cause, without real political positions and/or beliefs being revealed in the process, though with or without critique.^[22]

a political style of aiming to increase one's political influence at almost any price, or a political style that involves seizing every and any opportunity to extend political influence, whenever such opportunities arise.
The practice of abandoning or compromising, in reality, some important political principles that were previously held, in the process of trying to increase one's political power and influence.
a trend of thought, or a political tendency, seeking to make political capital out of situations with the main aim being that of gaining more influence, prestige or support, instead of truly winning people over to a principled position or improving their political understanding.
believing that there is much more at work behind the scenes for the combining of alliances, making of pacts and signing of agreements for a cause.
having experiencing suffering for a political cause, without real political positions and/or beliefs being revealed in the process, though with or without critique.

一种政治风格，旨在不惜一切代价提高自己的政治影响力; 或一种政治风格，无论何时出现这种机会，都要抓住一切机会扩大自己的政治影响力。
在试图增强自己的政治权力和影响力的过程中，在现实中放弃或妥协原有的一些重要政治原则的做法。
一种思想倾向，或一种政治倾向，试图从局势中获得政治资本，其主要目的是获得更大的影响力、威望或支持，而不是真正赢得人们的原则立场或提高他们的政治理解。
认为在幕后还有更多的工作在进行，包括结成联盟、缔结协定和为一项事业签署协定。
因为政治原因而遭受痛苦，在这个过程中没有真正的政治立场和/或信仰被揭示，尽管有或没有批评。

Typically, opportunist political behavior is criticized for being short-sighted or narrow-minded.^[23] Most politicians are "opportunists" to some extent at least (they aim to use political opportunities creatively to their advantage, and have to try new initiatives), but the controversies surrounding the concept concern the exact relationship between "seizing a political opportunity" and the political principles being espoused. The term "political opportunism" is often used in a pejorative sense, mainly because it connotes the abandonment of principles or compromising political goals.^[24] Political integrity typically demands an appropriate combination of principled positions and political flexibility that produces a morally consistent behavior in specific circumstances. There are four main sources of political opportunism: suicide (a specific political methodology that is applied to maintain or increase political influence), populism, risk management, and "means become ends".

Typically, opportunist political behavior is criticized for being short-sighted or narrow-minded.See e.g. Caroline B. Glick, "Column one: Israel's premier opportunist". In: Jerusalem Post, 22 July 2011. Most politicians are "opportunists" to some extent at least (they aim to use political opportunities creatively to their advantage, and have to try new initiatives), but the controversies surrounding the concept concern the exact relationship between "seizing a political opportunity" and the political principles being espoused. The term "political opportunism" is often used in a pejorative sense, mainly because it connotes the abandonment of principles or compromising political goals.E.g. As'ad AbuKhalil, "Yusuf Al-Qaradawi and Political Opportunism". Al Alakhbar English, 28 March 2012. Political integrity typically demands an appropriate combination of principled positions and political flexibility that produces a morally consistent behavior in specific circumstances. There are four main sources of political opportunism: suicide (a specific political methodology that is applied to maintain or increase political influence), populism, risk management, and "means become ends".

通常，机会主义政治行为被批评为目光短浅或心胸狭窄。卡罗琳 · B · 格利克(Caroline B. Glick) ，《第一栏: 以色列的首要机会主义者》。原文地址: 耶路撒冷邮报，2011年7月22日。大多数政治家至少在某种程度上是“机会主义者”(他们的目标是创造性地利用政治机会，并不得不尝试新的举措) ，但围绕这一概念的争议涉及到“抓住政治机会”与所信奉的政治原则之间的确切关系。“政治机会主义”一词经常被用作贬义词，主要是因为它意味着放弃原则或妥协政治目标。就像阿布哈利勒所说的“卡拉达威和政治机会主义”。Al Alakhbar English，2012年3月28日。政治诚信通常需要原则立场和政治灵活性的适当结合，以便在特定情况下产生道德上一致的行为。政治机会主义有四个主要来源: 自杀(一种特殊的政治方法，用来保持或增加政治影响力) ，民粹主义，风险管理和“手段成为目的”。

Economic

There exists no agreed general, scientific definition or theory of economic opportunism; the literature usually considers only specific cases and contexts. Market trade supplies no universal morality of its own, except the law of contract and basic practical requirements to settle transactions, while at the same time legal rules, however precise in their formulation, cannot control every detail of transactions and the interpretation (or implications) thereof. Since economic opportunism must be assessed against some relevant norm or principle, controversy about what that norm or principle should be, makes a general definition difficult.^[25]

There exists no agreed general, scientific definition or theory of economic opportunism; the literature usually considers only specific cases and contexts. Market trade supplies no universal morality of its own, except the law of contract and basic practical requirements to settle transactions, while at the same time legal rules, however precise in their formulation, cannot control every detail of transactions and the interpretation (or implications) thereof. Since economic opportunism must be assessed against some relevant norm or principle, controversy about what that norm or principle should be, makes a general definition difficult.Chao C. Chen, Mike W. Peng, Patrick A. Saporito, "Individualism, Collectivism, and Opportunism: A Cultural Perspective on Transaction Cost Economics". In: Journal of Management, Vol. 28 No. 4, 2002, pp. 567–583.

经济学对于经济机会主义没有统一的一般的、科学的定义或理论; 文献通常只考虑特定的情况和背景。市场交易本身并不提供普遍的道德，除了合同法和结算交易的基本实践要求，而与此同时，法律规则，无论其制定多么精确，都不能控制交易的每一个细节及其解释(或含义)。由于经济机会主义必须根据一些相关的规范或原则进行评估，关于这种规范或原则应该是什么的争论使得一般性定义变得困难。陈，彭，萨波里托，“个人主义，集体主义，机会主义: 交易成本经济学的文化透视”。在: 管理杂志，第一卷。28号。4,2002，pp.567–583.

Market trade is compatible with a great variety of moral norms, religions, and political systems, and indeed supporters of the free market claim that this is exactly its advantage: people can choose their own values, buying and selling as they wish within a basic legal framework accepted by all.^[26] People would not normally trade, if they did not expect to gain something by it; the fact that they do trade normally presupposes at least a respect for the basic rights of the party being traded with. Nevertheless, the gains or benefits of trading activity (and indeed the losses), although entirely legal, might be distributed very unequally or in ways not anticipated by previous understandings, and thus accusations of "economic opportunism" can arise nevertheless in many different settings.^[27] If this is the case, relevant trading obligations (or civil obligations) are usually considered as not being (fully) met or honored, in the pursuit of economic self-interest. Greed is frequently mentioned as a primary motive for economic opportunism.^[28]

Market trade is compatible with a great variety of moral norms, religions, and political systems, and indeed supporters of the free market claim that this is exactly its advantage: people can choose their own values, buying and selling as they wish within a basic legal framework accepted by all.Thomas C. Leonard, "The price is wrong: causes and consequences of ethical restraint in trade." Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines, Volume 14, numéro 4, Décembre 2004, pp 1-17. People would not normally trade, if they did not expect to gain something by it; the fact that they do trade normally presupposes at least a respect for the basic rights of the party being traded with. Nevertheless, the gains or benefits of trading activity (and indeed the losses), although entirely legal, might be distributed very unequally or in ways not anticipated by previous understandings, and thus accusations of "economic opportunism" can arise nevertheless in many different settings.Kurt Eggert, "Limiting abuse and opportunism by mortgage servicers". In: Housing Policy Debate (Fannie Mae Foundation), Vol. 15, Issue 3, 2004. If this is the case, relevant trading obligations (or civil obligations) are usually considered as not being (fully) met or honored, in the pursuit of economic self-interest. Greed is frequently mentioned as a primary motive for economic opportunism.Damian Saunders, "Mark Hurd and HP, economic opportunism and greed, one year on." Opinion, 30 January 2010. Dan Ackman, "Kozlowski Speaks!". Forbes Magazine, 28 April 2005. Ken Frost, "The Ongoing Trials of The Late Michael Jackson: Greed and Opportunism." 2 February 2005.

市场贸易与各种各样的道德规范、宗教和政治制度相容，实际上，自由市场的支持者声称这正是它的优势: 人们可以选择自己的价值观，在所有人都接受的基本法律框架内，按照自己的意愿买卖。伦纳德，“价格是错误的: 在贸易中道德约束的原因和后果。”Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines, Volume 14, numéro 4, Décembre 2004, pp 1-17.人们通常不会进行交易，如果他们不指望通过交易获得什么的话; 他们进行交易的事实通常预先假定至少要尊重被交易方的基本权利。然而，交易活动的收益或利益(实际上是损失) ，尽管是完全合法的，但可能分配得非常不平等，或者以以前的理解没有预料到的方式分配，因此“经济机会主义”的指控可能在许多不同的场合出现。库尔特埃格特，“限制滥用和机会主义的抵押贷款服务商”。在: 住房政策辩论(房利美基金会) ，第一卷。二零零四年第三期第十五期。如果是这种情况，相关的贸易义务(或民事义务)通常被认为是没有得到(充分)履行或履行，在追求经济自身利益。贪婪经常被认为是经济机会主义的主要动机。达米安桑德斯，“马克赫德和惠普，经济机会主义和贪婪，一年后。”意见，2010年1月30日。Dan Ackman“ Kozlowski 说话了!”。福布斯杂志，2005年4月28日。肯 · 弗罗斯特，《已故迈克尔 · 杰克逊的持续审判: 贪婪与机会主义》2005年2月2日。

Glenn R. Parker^[29] claims that the five most discussed examples of economic' opportunism are:

Glenn R. ParkerIn his book Self-policing in politics: the political economy of reputational controls on politicians (Princeton University Press, 2004, p.21). claims that the five most discussed examples of economic' opportunism are:

帕克(Glenn R. parker)在他的著作《政治中的自我监督: 对政治家的声誉控制的政治经济学》(普林斯顿大学出版社，2004年，第21页)中。他声称，人们讨论得最多的五个经济学机会主义例子是:

adverse selection
moral hazard
last-period exploitation, when it is known that competitors or stakeholders are not able to respond to a suitably timed selfish action.
reneging (in contracts), where a contractual agreement, promise, intention or understanding of a deal is not fully honored by a party to the contract, for selfish motives, because it is possible "to get away with it" and/or because there is an incentive to do so.^[30]
shirking, involving some kind of negligence, or failure to acquit oneself of duty (or a responsibility) previously agreed or implied (see also efficiency wages).

adverse selection
moral hazard
last-period exploitation, when it is known that competitors or stakeholders are not able to respond to a suitably timed selfish action.
reneging (in contracts), where a contractual agreement, promise, intention or understanding of a deal is not fully honored by a party to the contract, for selfish motives, because it is possible "to get away with it" and/or because there is an incentive to do so.See e.g. G. Richard Shell, "Opportunism and trust in the Negotiation of Commercial Contracts: Toward a New Cause of Action." Vanderbilt Law Review, Vol. 44, March 1991, pp. 221-282.
shirking, involving some kind of negligence, or failure to acquit oneself of duty (or a responsibility) previously agreed or implied (see also efficiency wages).

逆向选择
道德风险
最后阶段的剥削，众所周知，竞争对手或利益相关者无法对适时的自私行为作出反应。(在合同中)出于自私的动机，合同一方没有完全履行合同协议、承诺、意图或对交易的理解，因为有可能“侥幸逃脱”和/或因为有这样做的动机。见例。商业合同谈判中的机会主义和信任: 走向一个新的诉讼原因范德比尔特法律评论，第一卷。1991年3月，第44页。221-282.
推卸责任，涉及某种疏忽，或未能履行事先约定或默示的职责(或责任)(另见效率工资)。

In transaction cost economics, opportunism means self-interest seeking with guile, involving some kind of deliberate deceit and the absence of moral restraint. It could involve deliberately withholding or distorting important business information, shirking (doing less work than agreed), or failing to fulfill formal or informal promises and obligations. It occurs in trading activities especially where rules and sanctions are lacking, and where the opportunist actor has great power to influence an outcome by the attitude he assumes in practice. However, others^[31] argue that this reflects a narrow view of economic opportunism, because there are many more ways that economic actors can take selfish advantage of other economic actors, even if they do not violate the law.^[32] The critics of opportunism also note that opportunism is a hard to capture concept in empirical studies. Individuals are unlikely to answer truthfully questions about opportunism that makes an “unflattering behavioral assumption” (Williamson, 1995, p. 29) about how individuals behave when transacting.^[33]

In transaction cost economics, opportunism means self-interest seeking with guile, involving some kind of deliberate deceit and the absence of moral restraint. It could involve deliberately withholding or distorting important business information, shirking (doing less work than agreed), or failing to fulfill formal or informal promises and obligations. It occurs in trading activities especially where rules and sanctions are lacking, and where the opportunist actor has great power to influence an outcome by the attitude he assumes in practice. However, othersNicolai J. Foss and Peter G. Klein, "Critiques of transaction cost economics: An overview". Organizations and markets, September 2009 argue that this reflects a narrow view of economic opportunism, because there are many more ways that economic actors can take selfish advantage of other economic actors, even if they do not violate the law.See further Kuntara Pukthuanthong and Harry J. Turtle, "Legal Opportunism, Litigation Risk, and IPO Underpricing", January 2009 ; Paul J. Zak (ed.), Moral markets: the critical role of values in the economy. Princeton University Press, 2008. The critics of opportunism also note that opportunism is a hard to capture concept in empirical studies. Individuals are unlikely to answer truthfully questions about opportunism that makes an “unflattering behavioral assumption” (Williamson, 1995, p. 29) about how individuals behave when transacting.

在交易成本经济学中，机会主义指的是利己主义的狡猾追求，包括某种蓄意欺骗和缺乏道德约束。它可能涉及故意隐瞒或扭曲重要的商业信息，逃避(做的工作少于约定) ，或未能履行正式或非正式的承诺和义务。它发生在贸易活动中，特别是在缺乏规则和制裁的情况下，以及机会主义行为者在实践中采取的态度对结果具有巨大影响力的情况下。然而，其他人尼古拉 · J · 福斯和彼得 · G · 克莱因，“交易成本经济学的批评: 一个概述”。2009年9月的《组织和市场》认为，这反映了对经济机会主义的狭隘看法，因为经济行为者可以利用其他经济行为者的自私利益，即使他们没有违反法律。更多请见昆塔拉 · 普克图安东和哈里 · J。海龟，“法律机会主义，诉讼风险，和 IPO 抑价”，2009年1月;。) ，道德市场: 价值观在经济中的关键作用。普林斯顿大学出版社，2008年。机会主义的批评者也指出，在实证研究中，机会主义是一个很难捕捉到的概念。个人不太可能真实地回答有关机会主义的问题，这种机会主义对个人在交易时的行为做出了“不利于他人的行为假设”(Williamson，1995，第29页)。

Game theory

= 博弈论 =

In game theory, opportunism concerns the contradictory relationships between altruistic and self-interested behaviour, where the different kinds of common and sectional interests existing in a situation are used mainly to make gains for oneself. If some actors in a game are placed at a disadvantage in some way, for any reason, it becomes an opportunity for other actors to capitalize on that fact, by using the disadvantage of others to improve their own position – under conditions where actors both compete and cooperate in different areas. Two classic cases discussed in game theory where opportunism is often involved are the free rider problem and the prisoner's dilemma.^[34] In this game-theoretical sense, Paul Seabright defines opportunism as "the behaviour of those who seek to benefit from the efforts of others without contributing anything themselves."^[35] Game theory can, for example, model the effects of information asymmetry, where people have unequal access to relevant information, so that those who "do know" can take advantage of those who "don't know".

In game theory, opportunism concerns the contradictory relationships between altruistic and self-interested behaviour, where the different kinds of common and sectional interests existing in a situation are used mainly to make gains for oneself. If some actors in a game are placed at a disadvantage in some way, for any reason, it becomes an opportunity for other actors to capitalize on that fact, by using the disadvantage of others to improve their own position – under conditions where actors both compete and cooperate in different areas. Two classic cases discussed in game theory where opportunism is often involved are the free rider problem and the prisoner's dilemma.Reinhard Bachmann and Akbar Zaheer (eds.), Handbook of trust research. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2006, p. 201. In this game-theoretical sense, Paul Seabright defines opportunism as "the behaviour of those who seek to benefit from the efforts of others without contributing anything themselves."Paul Seabright, The company of strangers: a natural history of economic life. Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 5. Game theory can, for example, model the effects of information asymmetry, where people have unequal access to relevant information, so that those who "do know" can take advantage of those who "don't know".

在博弈论中，机会主义关注的是利他主义行为与利己主义行为之间的矛盾关系。如果游戏中的某些行为者由于某种原因处于不利地位，其他行为者就有机会利用这一事实，利用其他行为者的不利地位来改善自己的地位——在不同领域的行为者既竞争又合作的情况下。博弈论中经常涉及机会主义的两个经典案例是搭便车问题和囚徒困境。Reinhard Bachmann and Akbar Zaheer (ed.) ，信任研究手册。切尔滕纳姆: 爱德华 · 埃尔加，2006年，第201页。在这种博弈论意义上，保罗 · 西布莱特(Paul Seabright)将机会主义定义为“那些寻求从他人的努力中获益而自己却没有任何贡献的人的行为。”。“ Paul Seabright 《陌生人的公司: 经济生活的自然史》。普林斯顿大学出版社，2004年，第5页。例如，博弈论可以模拟信息不对称的影响，在这种情况下，人们获取相关信息的机会不平等，因此那些“确实知道”的人可以利用那些“不知道”的人。

From a game-theoretical perspective, opportunism is objectively a "problem", if the pursuit of self-interest – in conflict with other interests at stake – has an undesirable or unwanted result for some actors or most of them. However, in principle examples could also be constructed where opportunist behaviour unintentionally serves other, broader interests (such as when, in their rush to take selfish advantage of a situation, the opportunist actors create more opportunities for other actors at the same time – the "bandwaggon" or "food chain" effect; see also Pareto optimality). In game theory, therefore, opportunism is not defined as being intrinsically and necessarily always a good thing or a bad thing; it could be either. Usually though, it is assumed, that the game theorist is able to "stand outside" the different interests being studied, to view the situation objectively – in a detached, uninvolved, impartial and unbiased way.

From a game-theoretical perspective, opportunism is objectively a "problem", if the pursuit of self-interest – in conflict with other interests at stake – has an undesirable or unwanted result for some actors or most of them. However, in principle examples could also be constructed where opportunist behaviour unintentionally serves other, broader interests (such as when, in their rush to take selfish advantage of a situation, the opportunist actors create more opportunities for other actors at the same time – the "bandwaggon" or "food chain" effect; see also Pareto optimality). In game theory, therefore, opportunism is not defined as being intrinsically and necessarily always a good thing or a bad thing; it could be either. Usually though, it is assumed, that the game theorist is able to "stand outside" the different interests being studied, to view the situation objectively – in a detached, uninvolved, impartial and unbiased way.

从博弈论的角度来看，机会主义客观上是一个“问题”，如果对自身利益的追求——与其他利益相冲突——对某些行为者或大多数行为者产生了不希望或不想要的结果。然而，原则上也可以构建机会主义行为无意中为其他更广泛的利益服务的例子(例如，当机会主义行为者急于利用一种情况时，同时为其他行为者创造更多的机会——“赶时髦”或“食物链”效应，另见帕累托最优)。因此，在博弈论中，机会主义并不被定义为从本质上来说总是一件好事或者一件坏事; 它可以是任何一种。通常情况下，人们认为博弈论者能够“置身于”被研究的不同利益之外，客观地看待形势——以一种超然的、无关的、公正的和无偏见的方式。

Kenneth Arrow explains that markets require trust to operate effectively, but that trust may not be spontaneously generated by market activity:

肯尼思•阿罗(Kenneth Arrow)解释道，市场需要信任才能有效运作，但市场活动可能不会自发地产生信任:

"In a rational type of analysis it will be said that it is profitable to be trustworthy. So I will be trustworthy because it is profitable to me. But you can't very easily establish trust on a basis like that. If your basis is rational decision and your underlying motive is self-interest, then you can betray your trust at any point when it is profitable and in your interest to do so. Therefore other people can't trust you. For there to be trust, there has to be a social structure which is based on motives different from immediate opportunism."^[36]

Social

= 社交 = =

Social opportunism refers to the use of opportunities for social contact only for selfish purposes or motives. Because it is only selfish, the implication is usually that obligations to other participants in the given social setting are not (fully) met or honoured. The social opportunist participates in a group, cooperates with it or associates with it, not primarily because he wants to "contribute", give or share something to the group, or because he values being part of it as an intrinsic good, but only because he wants to get some advantage out of the participation for himself. Consequently, the participation by the opportunist is substantively only a "means" that serves some other, selfish purpose. This may be tolerated, to the extent that the selfish purpose of the opportunist is compatible with, or does not conflict with, the goals and intentions of the group. It may be regarded as undesirable and unwanted, or indeed a breach of trust or good faith, if that is not the case.

社会机会主义是指利用机会进行社会接触只是出于自私的目的或动机。因为它只是自私的，这通常意味着在给定的社会环境中，对其他参与者的义务没有(完全)履行或履行。社会机会主义者参与到一个团体中，与之合作或者与之联系，主要不是因为他想要“贡献”，给予或者分享一些东西给这个团体，或者因为他认为成为团体的一部分是一种内在的好处，而仅仅是因为他想要从自己的参与中获得一些好处。因此，机会主义者的参与实质上只是一种服务于其他自私目的的“手段”。只要机会主义者的自私目的与团体的目标和意图相容或不冲突，这种做法就可以被容忍。如果情况并非如此，它可能被认为是不受欢迎和不受欢迎的，或者确实是对信任或诚信的背叛。

Groups, gatherings, associations, or organizations that operate on the basis of voluntary or involuntary association, or in an atmosphere of mutual trust, may provide resources or contacts to their participants that are:

Provided and shared only because of their cooperation, or being together.
Conditional on actually participating in the social setting.

Groups, gatherings, associations, or organizations that operate on the basis of voluntary or involuntary association, or in an atmosphere of mutual trust, may provide resources or contacts to their participants that are:

Provided and shared only because of their cooperation, or being together.
Conditional on actually participating in the social setting.

基于自愿或非自愿结社或在相互信任的气氛中运作的团体、集会、协会或组织，可向其参与者提供下列资源或联系:

仅因合作或在一起而提供和分享。
以实际参与社会环境为条件。

Thus, to use those resources or contacts for some selfish aim, paradoxically the social opportunist necessarily has to gain entry, join in and participate socially; there is no other way to gain access to or extract what he wants for himself. Some social groupings may welcome social opportunists, because they can serve a useful function, or can be persuaded (perhaps with group pressure) to change their ways through participation. Other social groupings may try to prevent social opportunism, by imposing strict preconditions of participation to ward off opportunists, or with the aid of rules prohibiting opportunist behaviour.

因此，为了达到某种自私的目的而使用这些资源或联系，矛盾的是，社会机会主义者必须获得进入、加入和参与社会活动的机会; 没有其他途径获得或提取他自己想要的东西。一些社会团体可能欢迎社会机会主义者，因为他们可以发挥有益的作用，或者可以被说服(也许是通过团体压力)通过参与改变他们的方式。其他社会群体可能通过规定严格的参与前提条件以防止机会主义者，或借助禁止机会主义行为的规则，试图防止社会机会主义。

Marxist theory

Karl Marx provided no substantive theory of opportunism; insofar as he used the term, he meant a tactic of convenience or expediency used for self-serving motives, involving some or other kind of political, economic or intellectual trick. Nevertheless, some Marxists 模板:Who claim that Marx's theory of capitalism does imply a substantive theory of opportunism.模板:Dubious Its main claim is that opportunism is not simply an aberration or impediment to the efficient functioning of capitalism, but an integral and necessary characteristic of it; capitalist market activity promotes opportunist moves in all sorts of ways. Five kinds of factors are usually cited:

Karl Marx provided no substantive theory of opportunism; insofar as he used the term, he meant a tactic of convenience or expediency used for self-serving motives, involving some or other kind of political, economic or intellectual trick. Nevertheless, some Marxists claim that Marx's theory of capitalism does imply a substantive theory of opportunism. Its main claim is that opportunism is not simply an aberration or impediment to the efficient functioning of capitalism, but an integral and necessary characteristic of it; capitalist market activity promotes opportunist moves in all sorts of ways. Five kinds of factors are usually cited:

马克思主义理论没有提供任何关于机会主义的实质性理论; 就他使用的术语而言，他指的是出于自私动机而使用的一种方便或权宜之计，涉及某种或其他形式的政治、经济或智力伎俩。然而，一些马克思主义者认为，马克思的资本主义理论确实意味着一种实质性的机会主义理论。它的主要论点是，机会主义不仅仅是资本主义有效运作的一种偏差或障碍，而且是资本主义不可或缺的必要特征; 资本主义市场活动以各种方式促进机会主义运动。人们通常会提到五种因素:

Capitalist society constantly reorganizes the structure of human cooperation, so that, more and more, people produce things they do not need themselves, or that are surplus to their own requirements, and can therefore be appropriated by others for personal gain. This causes alienation, and it creates a specific motivational structure. It promotes an inability to respond adequately to the needs of others except in the form of self-interested trade-offs.^[37]
Although people necessarily have to cooperate to survive, the way they go about this is highly contradictory, and involves "character masks", because there is also constant competition among individuals, businesses and social classes for money, power and prestige. They all have different interests, and are likely to take advantage of others, when they sense they can get away with it. This competition is rarely a level playing field.^[38]
Capitalist society is itself founded on the exploitation of the labour of others and on unequal exchange. This is enabled by the ownership or control of assets, money and credit that investors use to extract unearned income from the work of others who have to sell their work capacity to survive. It makes it possible for private owners of capital to claim more resources than they have themselves produced or contributed to society. Owning property is rewarded more and more, and working to create it is rewarded less and less.^[39]
Regulating all the conflicting interests and values, the capitalist state enforces the constraints of a legal system, but this legal system splits moral value and economic value into separate compartments, as well as splitting public and private spheres.^[40] While it formally regards all citizens as equal and free, in reality people are very unequally positioned with respect to their social status, power, knowledge and wealth, and consequently also their freedoms. Information asymmetry is not simply a problem in trade, but occurs in every sphere of life, and thus some capitalize on the ignorance of others.^[41]
Capitalist society is of itself aimless and amorphous with regard to the purposes of human life, lacking any shared, consensual ethic. Any candidate for such an ethic, such as a religion, is only as influential as the power that exists to assert it, but even so its norms are constantly contradicted in practice. Capitalism makes human development conditional on the unbridled pursuit of self-enrichment. This promotes personal qualities such as egoism and selfishness, where people try to "privatize the gains and socialize the losses."^[42]

Capitalist society constantly reorganizes the structure of human cooperation, so that, more and more, people produce things they do not need themselves, or that are surplus to their own requirements, and can therefore be appropriated by others for personal gain. This causes alienation, and it creates a specific motivational structure. It promotes an inability to respond adequately to the needs of others except in the form of self-interested trade-offs.See Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts 1844. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1959.
Although people necessarily have to cooperate to survive, the way they go about this is highly contradictory, and involves "character masks", because there is also constant competition among individuals, businesses and social classes for money, power and prestige. They all have different interests, and are likely to take advantage of others, when they sense they can get away with it. This competition is rarely a level playing field.See Karl Marx, Capital Volume 3. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1981.
Capitalist society is itself founded on the exploitation of the labour of others and on unequal exchange. This is enabled by the ownership or control of assets, money and credit that investors use to extract unearned income from the work of others who have to sell their work capacity to survive. It makes it possible for private owners of capital to claim more resources than they have themselves produced or contributed to society. Owning property is rewarded more and more, and working to create it is rewarded less and less.See Karl Marx, "The general law of accumulation", in: Capital Volume 1. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1976. Steven Mufson and Jia Lynn Yang, "Capital gains tax rates benefiting wealthy feed growing gap between rich and poor", in: Washington Post, 12 September 2011.
Regulating all the conflicting interests and values, the capitalist state enforces the constraints of a legal system, but this legal system splits moral value and economic value into separate compartments, as well as splitting public and private spheres.See e.g. Heide Gerstenberger, Impersonal Power: History and theory of the bourgeois state. Haymarket Books, 2009. While it formally regards all citizens as equal and free, in reality people are very unequally positioned with respect to their social status, power, knowledge and wealth, and consequently also their freedoms. Information asymmetry is not simply a problem in trade, but occurs in every sphere of life, and thus some capitalize on the ignorance of others.See: Samuel Bowles, Richard Edwards and Frank Roosevelt, Understanding Capitalism: Competition, Command and Change. Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2005.
Capitalist society is of itself aimless and amorphous with regard to the purposes of human life, lacking any shared, consensual ethic. Any candidate for such an ethic, such as a religion, is only as influential as the power that exists to assert it, but even so its norms are constantly contradicted in practice. Capitalism makes human development conditional on the unbridled pursuit of self-enrichment. This promotes personal qualities such as egoism and selfishness, where people try to "privatize the gains and socialize the losses."See e.g. Psychology of the Private Individual: Critique of Bourgeois Consciousness. Gegenstandpunkt, 2009

资本主义社会不断重组人类合作的结构，使越来越多的人生产他们自己不需要的东西，或者超出他们自己需要的东西，因此可以被他人占为己有。这会导致异化，并产生特定的动机结构。它促使人们无法对他人的需要作出充分的反应，除非是以自私自利的取舍的形式。参见马克思《1844年经济学哲学手稿》。莫斯科: 进步出版社，1959年。
虽然人们必须合作才能生存，但是他们的做法是非常矛盾的，而且涉及到“性格面具”，因为个人、企业和社会阶层之间也在不断地争夺金钱、权力和声望。他们都有不同的兴趣，当他们意识到他们可以逃脱惩罚时，他们很可能会利用别人。这种竞争很少是公平竞争的。参见卡尔 · 马克思，《资本论》第三卷。哈蒙兹沃斯: 鹈鹕出版社，1981年。
资本主义社会本身就是建立在剥削他人劳动和不平等交换的基础上的。这是由于资产、货币和信贷的所有权或控制权，投资者利用这些资产、货币和信贷从不得不出售工作能力以求生存的其他人的工作中榨取非劳动收入。它使资本的私人所有者有可能要求获得比他们自己生产或对社会作出的贡献更多的资源。拥有财产的回报越来越多，而努力创造财产的回报越来越少。参见马克思的《积累法则》，见《资本论》第一卷。哈蒙兹沃斯: 鹈鹕出版社，1976年。Steven Mufson and JiaLynn Yang，“资本利得税率惠及富人，填补了日益扩大的贫富差距”，发表于: 华盛顿邮报，2011年9月12日。
资本主义国家规范所有相互冲突的利益和价值，强制执行法律制度的约束，但这种法律制度将道德价值和经济价值分割成不同的部分，并将公共和私人领域分割开来。见例。《非个人权力: 资产阶级国家的历史与理论》。干草市场出版社，2009年。虽然它形式上认为所有公民都是平等和自由的，但在现实中，人们在社会地位、权力、知识和财富方面，以及随之而来的自由方面，处于非常不平等的地位。信息不对称不仅仅是贸易中的问题，而且发生在生活的各个领域，因此有些人利用了其他人的无知。参见: 塞缪尔 · 鲍尔斯，理查德 · 爱德华兹和弗兰克 · 罗斯福，《理解资本主义: 竞争、指挥与变革》。牛津大学出版社，2005年第3版。
资本主义社会本身对于人类生活的目的是漫无目的和无定形的，缺乏任何共同的、协商一致的伦理。任何这样一种道德的候选人，例如一个宗教，其影响力仅仅取决于维护它的力量，但即便如此，它的规范在实践中也总是相互矛盾。资本主义使人类的发展建立在不受约束地追求自我充实的基础上。这促进了个人品质，如利己主义和自私自利，人们试图“私有化的收益和社会化的损失。”。”见例。个人心理: 资产阶级意识批判。Gegenstand Punkt 2009年

Taken together, these five factors make it difficult for any individual or group to reconcile self-interest with the general interest, genuinely and durably, and it means that moral double standards are very pervasive.^[43] In turn, that creates a total environment where opportunism can flourish – including within the socialist movement. In fact, "opportunism" as a political term began to be used widely among Marxists, when the parliamentarians from the leading party of the Second International, the German Social Democratic Party, voted in favour of the war credits necessary at the beginning of World War I.^[44] Marxist critics argued that this policy was a total abandonment of socialist principles, especially the principle of anti-militarism and the international solidarity of the working class.^[45] Since that time, opportunism has been often defined by Marxists as a policy that puts special interests ahead of the interests of the working class^[46]

Taken together, these five factors make it difficult for any individual or group to reconcile self-interest with the general interest, genuinely and durably, and it means that moral double standards are very pervasive.Ernest Mandel, "Marx, Engels en het probleem van de zogenaamde 'dubbele moraal'", in: Veelzijdig marxisme, acta van het colloqium “De actualiteit van Karl Marx” – in opdracht van het Instituut voor Marxistische Studies, 1983 In turn, that creates a total environment where opportunism can flourish – including within the socialist movement. In fact, "opportunism" as a political term began to be used widely among Marxists, when the parliamentarians from the leading party of the Second International, the German Social Democratic Party, voted in favour of the war credits necessary at the beginning of World War I.Pierre Broué, The German revolution 1917-1923. Leiden: Brill, 2005, p. 55-56. Marxist critics argued that this policy was a total abandonment of socialist principles, especially the principle of anti-militarism and the international solidarity of the working class.See e.g. V.I. Lenin, "Opportunism, and the Collapse of the Second International", 1915. V.I Lenin Since that time, opportunism has been often defined by Marxists as a policy that puts special interests ahead of the interests of the working class

综上所述，这五个因素使任何个人或群体难以真正持久地将自身利益与普遍利益调和起来，这意味着道德双重标准非常普遍。欧内斯特 · 曼德尔(Ernest Mandel) ，“ Marx，Engels en het problem van De zogenaamde‘ dubbele moraal’”，In: Veelzijdig Marx，acta van het colloqium 欧内斯特 · 曼德尔(Ernest Mandel) ，“马克思，恩格斯，在这个问题上，范德佐根纳姆德‘双重道德’”，In: Veelzijdig Marx，acta van het colloqium“德实际上，范卡尔 · 马克思”-In opdracht van het Institute voor Marx Studies，1983反过来，它创造了一个。事实上，“机会主义”作为一个政治术语开始在马克思主义者中被广泛使用，当时第二国际的领导党派德国社会民主党的圆颅党投票赞成在第一次世界大战开始时必要的战争信用。《皮埃尔 · 布鲁埃，德国革命1917-1923》。莱顿: 布里尔，2005，第55-56页。马克思主义批评家认为，这种政策完全放弃了社会主义原则，特别是反军国主义原则和工人阶级的国际团结。见例。V 我。列宁，《机会主义与第二国际的崩溃》，1915年。从那时起，马克思主义者常常把机会主义定义为一种把特殊利益置于工人阶级利益之上的政策

Legal

Legal opportunism is a term coined in a 2015 article in The Journal of Business Research to describe litigation following an IPO to recover potential losses after negative stock developments, regardless of the legal merits of the claim.^[47]

Legal opportunism is a term coined in a 2015 article in The Journal of Business Research to describe litigation following an IPO to recover potential losses after negative stock developments, regardless of the legal merits of the claim.

法律机会主义是2015年《商业研究杂志》(The Journal of Business Research)上的一篇文章创造出来的一个术语，用来描述 IPO 之后的诉讼，目的是在股价下跌后收回潜在损失，而不管索赔的法律依据如何。

Spiritual

Spiritual opportunism refers to the exploitation of spiritual ideas (or of the spirituality of others, or of spiritual authority): for personal gain, partisan interests or selfish motives. Usually the implication is that doing so is unprincipled in some way, although it may cause no harm and involve no abuse. In other words, religion becomes a means to achieve something that is alien to it, or things are projected into religion that do not belong there.

精神机会主义指的是对精神思想(或他人的精神，或精神权威)的剥削: 为了个人利益，党派利益或自私的动机。通常的含义是，这样做在某种程度上是没有原则的，尽管它可能不会造成伤害，也不会涉及滥用。换句话说，宗教成为一种手段，以实现某些东西是外来的，或事物投射到宗教，不属于那里。

If a religious authority acquires influence over the "hearts and minds" of people who are believers in a religion, and therefore can "tap into" the most intimate and deepest-felt concerns of believers, it can also gain immense power from that. This power can be used in a self-interested manner, exploiting opportunities to benefit the position of the religious authority or its supporters in society. This could be considered as inconsistent with the real intentions of the religious belief, or it might show lack of respect for the spiritual autonomy of others. The "good faith" of people is then taken advantage of, in ways that involve some kind of deceit, or some dubious, selfish motive.

如果一个宗教权威能够影响一个宗教信仰者的“心灵和思想”，从而能够“挖掘”信仰者最私密和最深切的关切，它也能从中获得巨大的力量。这种权力可以以自利的方式加以利用，利用各种机会使宗教当局或其支持者在社会中的地位受益。这可能被认为与宗教信仰的真正意图不一致，或者可能表明不尊重他人的精神自主权。然后，人们的“善意”被利用，其方式涉及某种欺骗，或一些可疑的，自私的动机。

The term spiritual opportunism is also used in the sense of casting around for suitable spiritual beliefs borrowed and cobbled together in some way to justify, condemn or "make sense of" particular ways of behaving, usually with some partisan or ulterior motive. This may not be abusive, but it often gives rise to criticisms or accusations^[48] that the given spiritual beliefs:

The term spiritual opportunism is also used in the sense of casting around for suitable spiritual beliefs borrowed and cobbled together in some way to justify, condemn or "make sense of" particular ways of behaving, usually with some partisan or ulterior motive. This may not be abusive, but it often gives rise to criticisms or accusationsAn example is Robert M. Price, Top Secret: The Truth Behind Today’s Pop Mysticisms. Prometheus Books, 2008 that the given spiritual beliefs:

“精神机会主义”这个术语也被用于寻找合适的精神信仰，这些信仰被借用并以某种方式拼凑在一起，以证明、谴责或“理解”特定的行为方式，通常带有某种党派或别有用心的动机。这可能不是滥用，但它经常引起批评或指责一个例子是罗伯特 M。普莱斯，最高机密: 背后的真相今天的流行神秘主义。普罗米修斯出版社，2008年，给定的精神信仰:

are not an organic, sincere or authentic expression of the real nature of the people who contrived them.
do not really express what people's lives are about, but are in some way an "artificial add-on".
lack any deeper principled foundation, and are more an "eclectic, self-serving concoction"
are made to serve partisan interests, contrary to the real intention of the beliefs.

are not an organic, sincere or authentic expression of the real nature of the people who contrived them.
do not really express what people's lives are about, but are in some way an "artificial add-on".
lack any deeper principled foundation, and are more an "eclectic, self-serving concoction"
are made to serve partisan interests, contrary to the real intention of the beliefs.

不是一个有机的，真诚的或真实的表达，真正的性质的人谁设计他们。
不能真正表达人们的生活是什么，但在某种程度上是一个“人为的附加组成部分”。
缺乏任何更深层次的原则性基础，更像是一种“折衷的、自私的混合物”
是为了服务于党派利益，与信仰的真正意图相反。

Supporters of traditional religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism sometimes complain that people (such as New Age enthusiasts) seek out spiritual beliefs that serve only themselves, as a form of "spiritual opportunism". Such complaints are often highly controversial, because people are considered to have the right to their own spiritual beliefs (they may not have that right, to the extent that they are socially excluded unless they profess certain spiritual beliefs, but they may only subscribe "formally" or "outwardly" to them).

Supporters of traditional religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism sometimes complain that people (such as New Age enthusiasts) seek out spiritual beliefs that serve only themselves, as a form of "spiritual opportunism". Such complaints are often highly controversial, because people are considered to have the right to their own spiritual beliefs (they may not have that right, to the extent that they are socially excluded unless they profess certain spiritual beliefs, but they may only subscribe "formally" or "outwardly" to them).

传统宗教(如基督教、伊斯兰教、印度教或佛教)的支持者有时抱怨说，人们(如新世纪的狂热者)寻求只为自己服务的精神信仰，作为一种“精神机会主义”。这种抱怨往往具有高度争议性，因为人们被认为有权拥有自己的精神信仰(他们可能没有这种权利，以至于他们被社会排斥，除非他们宣称自己信仰某些精神信仰，但他们只能“正式”或“表面”认同这些信仰)。

Spiritual opportunism sometimes refers also to the practice of proselytizing one's spiritual beliefs when any opportunity to do so arises, for the purpose of winning over, or persuading others, about the superiority of these beliefs. In this context, the spiritual opportunist may engage in various actions, themselves not directly related to the spiritual beliefs, with the specific aim of convincing others of the superiority of his own belief system – it may effectively amount to "buying their support".

精神机会主义有时也指在出现任何机会的时候改变自己的精神信仰的做法，目的是赢得或说服他人相信这些信仰的优越性。在这种情况下，精神机会主义者可能会从事各种各样的行为，他们自己并不直接与精神信仰相关，具体目的是说服他人相信他自己的信仰体系的优越性——这可能实际上等于“买他们的支持”。

= 参见同样 =

商业机会
腐败
开明的利己主义
个人主义
杰蒂尼奥 · 巴西莱罗
精英主义
机会成本
积极会计

References

↑ "Opportunism".
↑ E.g. Donald L. Luskin, "Newt's Bain Opportunism Is Mitt's Opportunity". Wall Street Journal, 17 January 2012.[1]
↑ "opportunism | economics | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in English). Retrieved 2022-03-23.
↑ Luke Johnson, "A new lexicon to celebrate capitalism", Financial Times, October 25, 2011.
↑ Shraga F. Biran, Opportunism: How to Change the World--One Idea at a Time. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.
↑ Salomone, A. William (October 1962). "The Risorgimento between Ideology and History: The Political Myth of rivoluzione mancata". The American Historical Review. 68 (1): 38–56. doi:10.2307/1847182. JSTOR 1847182.
↑ According to the Grand Larousse encyclopédique, opportunism was the name given to the cautious reformism and nationalism of French Republicans, who advocated moderate policies to consolidate the French Third Republic after the eviction of the monarchists. The French Opportunists did not call themselves by this name; rather, the term was used by French radicals to describe centrist and center-left politics in the country. Possibly, the term was originally popularized by Victor Henri Rochefort, Marquis de Rochefort-Luçay, who used it in his criticisms of Léon Gambetta.

↑ "The World That Never Was: A True Story of Schemers, Anarchists, and Secret Agents", p. 153, Alex Butterworth, Vintage, 2010,

↑ Louise Lucas and Andrew Bounds, "Unilever's pension move prompts strike". Financial Times, December 9, 2011.
↑ The quotation is attributed to Baldwin, according to a Penguin Dictionary of Quotations, but the exact source is unclear.
↑ Brunner, Othmar A (2019). ihuman. Writers Republic LLC. p. 380. ISBN 9781646200290.
↑ Borzou Daragahi, "Libya: Back to the bad old ways". Financial times, February 16, 2012.
↑ "Government's sudden need to debate terror bill smacks of opportunism", The Globe and Mail, 22 April 2013.[2]
↑ Farah Stockman, "Opportunist of war". The Boston Globe, 13 december 2011.[3]
↑ Bogdan Mieczkowski, Dysfunctional Bureaucracy: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991, p. 37.
↑ Chester Barnard has a chapter on the "theory of opportunism" in his classic work The Functions of the Executive (Harvard University Press, originally published in 1938).
↑ Graham Scambler, "Sex Work Stigma: Opportunist Migrants in London". Sociology, vol. 41, no. 6, December 2007, pp. 1079-1096.
↑ Timmermans, Elisabeth; Van den Bulck, Jan (2018). "Casual Sexual Scripts on the Screen: A Quantitative Content Analysis". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 47 (5): 1481–1496. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1147-1. ISSN 0004-0002. PMC 5954064. PMID 29589163.
↑ Michael Ruse, The Oxford handbook of philosophy of biology. Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 199.
↑ Bartareau, T. (1996). "Foraging Behaviour of Trigona Carbonaria (Hymenoptera: Apidae) at Multiple-Choice Feeding Stations". Australian Journal of Zoology. 44 (2): 143. doi:10.1071/zo9960143.
↑ Rothbard, Murray. "Who was Niccolò Machiavelli?". Mises.org.
↑ Pierpont, Claudia Roth (8 September 2008). "The Florentine The man who taught rulers how to rule". www.newyorker.com. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
↑ See e.g. Caroline B. Glick, "Column one: Israel's premier opportunist". In: Jerusalem Post, 22 July 2011.[4]
↑ E.g. As'ad AbuKhalil, "Yusuf Al-Qaradawi and Political Opportunism". Al Alakhbar English, 28 March 2012.[5] -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期2014-02-09.
↑ Chao C. Chen, Mike W. Peng, Patrick A. Saporito, "Individualism, Collectivism, and Opportunism: A Cultural Perspective on Transaction Cost Economics". In: Journal of Management, Vol. 28 No. 4, 2002, pp. 567–583."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
↑ Thomas C. Leonard, "The price is wrong: causes and consequences of ethical restraint in trade." Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines, Volume 14, numéro 4, Décembre 2004, pp 1-17.[6]
↑ Kurt Eggert, "Limiting abuse and opportunism by mortgage servicers". In: Housing Policy Debate (Fannie Mae Foundation), Vol. 15, Issue 3, 2004."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
↑ Damian Saunders, "Mark Hurd and HP, economic opportunism and greed, one year on." Opinion, 30 January 2010.[7] Dan Ackman, "Kozlowski Speaks!". Forbes Magazine, 28 April 2005.[8] Ken Frost, "The Ongoing Trials of The Late Michael Jackson: Greed and Opportunism." 2 February 2005.[9]
↑ In his book Self-policing in politics: the political economy of reputational controls on politicians (Princeton University Press, 2004, p.21).
↑ See e.g. G. Richard Shell, "Opportunism and trust in the Negotiation of Commercial Contracts: Toward a New Cause of Action." Vanderbilt Law Review, Vol. 44, March 1991, pp. 221-282.
↑ Nicolai J. Foss and Peter G. Klein, "Critiques of transaction cost economics: An overview". Organizations and markets, September 2009 [10]
↑ See further Kuntara Pukthuanthong and Harry J. Turtle, "Legal Opportunism, Litigation Risk, and IPO Underpricing", January 2009 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link); Paul J. Zak (ed.), Moral markets: the critical role of values in the economy. Princeton University Press, 2008.
↑ Williamson, Oliver E. (1995). "Hierarchies, Markets and Power in the Economy : An Economic Perspective". Industrial and Corporate Change. 4: 21–49. doi:10.1093/icc/4.1.21.
↑ Reinhard Bachmann and Akbar Zaheer (eds.), Handbook of trust research. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2006, p. 201.
↑ Paul Seabright, The company of strangers: a natural history of economic life. Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 5.[11]
↑ Richard Swedberg, interview with Kenneth Arrow, in: Richard Swedberg, Economics and Sociology. Redefining their boundaries: conversations with economists and sociologists. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990, p. 137.
↑ See Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts 1844. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1959.
↑ See Karl Marx, Capital Volume 3. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1981.
↑ See Karl Marx, "The general law of accumulation", in: Capital Volume 1. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1976. Steven Mufson and Jia Lynn Yang, "Capital gains tax rates benefiting wealthy feed growing gap between rich and poor", in: Washington Post, 12 September 2011.
↑ See e.g. Heide Gerstenberger, Impersonal Power: History and theory of the bourgeois state. Haymarket Books, 2009.
↑ See: Samuel Bowles, Richard Edwards and Frank Roosevelt, Understanding Capitalism: Competition, Command and Change. Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2005.
↑ See e.g. Psychology of the Private Individual: Critique of Bourgeois Consciousness. Gegenstandpunkt, 2009 [12]
↑ Ernest Mandel, "Marx, Engels en het probleem van de zogenaamde 'dubbele moraal'", in: Veelzijdig marxisme, acta van het colloqium “De actualiteit van Karl Marx” – in opdracht van het Instituut voor Marxistische Studies, 1983
↑ Pierre Broué, The German revolution 1917-1923. Leiden: Brill, 2005, p. 55-56.
↑ See e.g. V.I. Lenin, "Opportunism, and the Collapse of the Second International", 1915. V.I Lenin
↑ "See e.g. Elif Çağlı, "A Dangerous Tendency: Opportunism"". Archived from the original on 2010-08-16. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
↑ Walker, Thomas; Turtle, Harry; Pukthuantthong, Kuntara; Thiengtham, Dolruedee (February 2015). "Legal opportunism, litigation risk, and IPO underpricing". Journal of Business Research. 68 (2). Retrieved May 6, 2022.
↑ An example is Robert M. Price, Top Secret: The Truth Behind Today’s Pop Mysticisms. Prometheus Books, 2008

模板:Narcissism

Category:Human behavior Category:Political terminology Category:Psychological attitude

类别: 人类行为类别: 政治术语类别: 心理态度

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Opportunism. Its edit history can be viewed at 机会主义行为/edithistory

[1] "Opportunism".

[2] E.g. Donald L. Luskin, "Newt's Bain Opportunism Is Mitt's Opportunity". Wall Street Journal, 17 January 2012.[1]

[3] "opportunism | economics | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in English). Retrieved 2022-03-23.

[4] Luke Johnson, "A new lexicon to celebrate capitalism", Financial Times, October 25, 2011.

[5] Shraga F. Biran, Opportunism: How to Change the World--One Idea at a Time. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.

[6] Salomone, A. William (October 1962). "The Risorgimento between Ideology and History: The Political Myth of rivoluzione mancata". The American Historical Review. 68 (1): 38–56. doi:10.2307/1847182. JSTOR 1847182.

[7] According to the Grand Larousse encyclopédique, opportunism was the name given to the cautious reformism and nationalism of French Republicans, who advocated moderate policies to consolidate the French Third Republic after the eviction of the monarchists. The French Opportunists did not call themselves by this name; rather, the term was used by French radicals to describe centrist and center-left politics in the country. Possibly, the term was originally popularized by Victor Henri Rochefort, Marquis de Rochefort-Luçay, who used it in his criticisms of Léon Gambetta.

[8] "The World That Never Was: A True Story of Schemers, Anarchists, and Secret Agents", p. 153, Alex Butterworth, Vintage, 2010,
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[64] {{Why?}}

[9] Louise Lucas and Andrew Bounds, "Unilever's pension move prompts strike". Financial Times, December 9, 2011.

[10] The quotation is attributed to Baldwin, according to a Penguin Dictionary of Quotations, but the exact source is unclear.

[11] Brunner, Othmar A (2019). ihuman. Writers Republic LLC. p. 380. ISBN 9781646200290.

[12] Borzou Daragahi, "Libya: Back to the bad old ways". Financial times, February 16, 2012.

[13] "Government's sudden need to debate terror bill smacks of opportunism", The Globe and Mail, 22 April 2013.[2]

[14] Farah Stockman, "Opportunist of war". The Boston Globe, 13 december 2011.[3]

[15] Bogdan Mieczkowski, Dysfunctional Bureaucracy: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991, p. 37.

[16] Chester Barnard has a chapter on the "theory of opportunism" in his classic work The Functions of the Executive (Harvard University Press, originally published in 1938).

[17] Graham Scambler, "Sex Work Stigma: Opportunist Migrants in London". Sociology, vol. 41, no. 6, December 2007, pp. 1079-1096.

[18] Timmermans, Elisabeth; Van den Bulck, Jan (2018). "Casual Sexual Scripts on the Screen: A Quantitative Content Analysis". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 47 (5): 1481–1496. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1147-1. ISSN 0004-0002. PMC 5954064. PMID 29589163.

[19] Michael Ruse, The Oxford handbook of philosophy of biology. Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 199.

[Bartareau1996-20] Bartareau, T. (1996). "Foraging Behaviour of Trigona Carbonaria (Hymenoptera: Apidae) at Multiple-Choice Feeding Stations". Australian Journal of Zoology. 44 (2): 143. doi:10.1071/zo9960143.

[21] Rothbard, Murray. "Who was Niccolò Machiavelli?". Mises.org.

[22] Pierpont, Claudia Roth (8 September 2008). "The Florentine The man who taught rulers how to rule". www.newyorker.com. Retrieved 5 June 2019.

[23] See e.g. Caroline B. Glick, "Column one: Israel's premier opportunist". In: Jerusalem Post, 22 July 2011.[4]

[24] E.g. As'ad AbuKhalil, "Yusuf Al-Qaradawi and Political Opportunism". Al Alakhbar English, 28 March 2012.[5] -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期2014-02-09.

[25] Chao C. Chen, Mike W. Peng, Patrick A. Saporito, "Individualism, Collectivism, and Opportunism: A Cultural Perspective on Transaction Cost Economics". In: Journal of Management, Vol. 28 No. 4, 2002, pp. 567–583."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[26] Thomas C. Leonard, "The price is wrong: causes and consequences of ethical restraint in trade." Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines, Volume 14, numéro 4, Décembre 2004, pp 1-17.[6]

[27] Kurt Eggert, "Limiting abuse and opportunism by mortgage servicers". In: Housing Policy Debate (Fannie Mae Foundation), Vol. 15, Issue 3, 2004."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[28] Damian Saunders, "Mark Hurd and HP, economic opportunism and greed, one year on." Opinion, 30 January 2010.[7] Dan Ackman, "Kozlowski Speaks!". Forbes Magazine, 28 April 2005.[8] Ken Frost, "The Ongoing Trials of The Late Michael Jackson: Greed and Opportunism." 2 February 2005.[9]

[29] In his book Self-policing in politics: the political economy of reputational controls on politicians (Princeton University Press, 2004, p.21).

[30] See e.g. G. Richard Shell, "Opportunism and trust in the Negotiation of Commercial Contracts: Toward a New Cause of Action." Vanderbilt Law Review, Vol. 44, March 1991, pp. 221-282.

[31] Nicolai J. Foss and Peter G. Klein, "Critiques of transaction cost economics: An overview". Organizations and markets, September 2009 [10]

[32] See further Kuntara Pukthuanthong and Harry J. Turtle, "Legal Opportunism, Litigation Risk, and IPO Underpricing", January 2009 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17. Retrieved 2013-05-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link); Paul J. Zak (ed.), Moral markets: the critical role of values in the economy. Princeton University Press, 2008.

[33] Williamson, Oliver E. (1995). "Hierarchies, Markets and Power in the Economy : An Economic Perspective". Industrial and Corporate Change. 4: 21–49. doi:10.1093/icc/4.1.21.

[34] Reinhard Bachmann and Akbar Zaheer (eds.), Handbook of trust research. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2006, p. 201.

[35] Paul Seabright, The company of strangers: a natural history of economic life. Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 5.[11]

[36] Richard Swedberg, interview with Kenneth Arrow, in: Richard Swedberg, Economics and Sociology. Redefining their boundaries: conversations with economists and sociologists. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990, p. 137.

[37] See Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts 1844. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1959.

[38] See Karl Marx, Capital Volume 3. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1981.

[39] See Karl Marx, "The general law of accumulation", in: Capital Volume 1. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1976. Steven Mufson and Jia Lynn Yang, "Capital gains tax rates benefiting wealthy feed growing gap between rich and poor", in: Washington Post, 12 September 2011.

[40] See e.g. Heide Gerstenberger, Impersonal Power: History and theory of the bourgeois state. Haymarket Books, 2009.

[41] See: Samuel Bowles, Richard Edwards and Frank Roosevelt, Understanding Capitalism: Competition, Command and Change. Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2005.

[42] See e.g. Psychology of the Private Individual: Critique of Bourgeois Consciousness. Gegenstandpunkt, 2009 [12]

[43] Ernest Mandel, "Marx, Engels en het probleem van de zogenaamde 'dubbele moraal'", in: Veelzijdig marxisme, acta van het colloqium “De actualiteit van Karl Marx” – in opdracht van het Instituut voor Marxistische Studies, 1983

[44] Pierre Broué, The German revolution 1917-1923. Leiden: Brill, 2005, p. 55-56.

[45] See e.g. V.I. Lenin, "Opportunism, and the Collapse of the Second International", 1915. V.I Lenin

[46] "See e.g. Elif Çağlı, "A Dangerous Tendency: Opportunism"". Archived from the original on 2010-08-16. Retrieved 2010-07-11.

[47] Walker, Thomas; Turtle, Harry; Pukthuantthong, Kuntara; Thiengtham, Dolruedee (February 2015). "Legal opportunism, litigation risk, and IPO underpricing". Journal of Business Research. 68 (2). Retrieved May 6, 2022.

[48] An example is Robert M. Price, Top Secret: The Truth Behind Today’s Pop Mysticisms. Prometheus Books, 2008

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机会主义行为

Definitions

Etymology

Moral connotations

Moral connotations

= 道德内涵 =

Human behaviour

Human behaviour

= 人类行为 =

Eight main contexts

Eight main contexts

= 八大背景 = =

Five main organizational influences

Five main organizational influences

Use of the term in specific areas

Use of the term in specific areas

Professional

Professional

= 专业 = =

Intellectual

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Evolutionary

= 进化 = =

Biological

Political

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Game theory

= 博弈论 =

Social

Social

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Marxist theory

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See also

= 参见同样 =

References

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