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第253行： − 随着脑成像方法(PET 和 fMRI)的出现，人脑功能的定位变得更加容易。这项研究已经证实了 PFC 的某些区域与工作记忆功能有关。在20世纪90年代，很多争论都集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为，背外侧区负责空间工作记忆，腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分，认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护，而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。争论并没有完全解决，但大多数证据支持功能区分。+ − − 第261行：
第259行： − 脑成像显示，工作记忆功能并不局限于 pfc。大量研究的综述表明，工作记忆任务中的激活区域分散在大脑皮层的很大一部分。空间任务倾向于招募更多的右半球区域，言语和物体工作记忆倾向于招募更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为左后顶叶皮层反映维持的一个组成部分，以及左额叶皮层反映次声练习的一个组成部分(已知与语言产生有关的 Broca 区域)。+ 第269行：
第267行： − 大多数工作记忆任务是由 PFC 和顶叶区域组成的网络，这一点正在形成共识。一项研究表明，在工作记忆任务中，这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明，这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分，而不是简单地在工作记忆任务中通过暂时性地阻塞它们而被意外激活，从而导致任务表现受损。这项研究发表在《经颅磁力刺激志上。+ 第277行：
第275行： − 目前的争论是关于这些大脑区域的功能。研究发现，PFC 在许多需要执行功能的任务中表现活跃。其他作者解释说，顶叶皮层的活动反映了执行功能，因为同一区域在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中也被激活。+ 第285行：
第283行： − 2003年对60项神经成像研究的荟萃分析发现，左额叶皮层参与了低任务需求的语言工作记忆，而右额叶皮层参与了空间工作记忆。当工作记忆必须不断更新和时间顺序记忆必须保持时，Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9区域参与其中。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼10和47参与双重任务要求或心理操作等操作的频率较高，后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼7参与了所有类型的执行功能。+ 第293行：
第291行： − 工作记忆被认为涉及额叶和顶叶神经解剖位置不同的两个突起。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作，其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新注意焦点包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活，而对选择性选择的需求增加则改变了额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶的激活。+ − 第310行：
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→脑内定位 Localization in the brain
Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e., lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.
Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e., lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.
脑成像方法(PET 和 fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代，很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为，背外侧区负责空间工作记忆，腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分，认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护，而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决，但大多数证据支持功能区分说。
Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref>
Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref>
Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).
Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).
脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明，工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域，言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件，以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。
There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.
There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.
这一观点正在形成共识：大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分，而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激（TMS）被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。
A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.
A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.
目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映，因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。
A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.
A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.
2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆，而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆，其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。
Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.
Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.
通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作，其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活，选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。
脑成像研究已经与阅读广度任务或相关任务进行。在这些任务中，PFC 和一些研究发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。在任务中表现更好的人在这些区域表现出更大的激活增加，随着时间的推移，他们的激活相关性更强，这表明他们这两个区域的神经活动更好地协调，可能是由于更强的连接性。
脑成像研究已经与阅读广度任务或相关任务进行。在这些任务中，PFC 和一些研究发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。在任务中表现更好的人在这些区域表现出更大的激活增加，随着时间的推移，他们的激活相关性更强，这表明他们这两个区域的神经活动更好地协调，可能是由于更强的连接性。
=== 神经模型 Neural models ===
=== 神经模型 Neural models ===