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For  processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

For  processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

For  processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

For  processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems,'''<font color="#32CD32">which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall</font>''', then

对于包括物质转移的过程，还需要进一步的说明: ‘在充分考虑了各个系统的基准参考状态后，当两个系统---- '''<font color="#32CD32">它们可能由不同的化学成分组成，最初只是被防渗墙隔开，或者是被隔离---- 通过移除墙体的热力学操作结合成一个新系统</font>'''，那么

对于包括物质转移的过程，还需要进一步的说明: ‘在充分考虑了各个系统的基准参考状态后，当两个系统---- '''<font color="#32CD32">它们可能由不同的化学成分组成，最初只是被防渗墙隔开，或者是被隔离---- 通过移除墙体的热力学操作结合成一个新系统</font>'''，那么

物质的内能可以解释为其组成原子的不规则微观运动的不同动能和它们之间相互作用的势能的总和。这些微观能量统称为物质的内能，并由宏观热力学性质来解释。组成原子的微观运动的总和随着系统温度的升高而增加; 这假设在系统的微观层次上没有其他的相互作用，例如化学反应、组成原子相互间的势能。

物质的内能可以解释为其组成原子的不规则微观运动的不同动能和它们之间相互作用的势能的总和。这些微观能量统称为物质的内能，并由宏观热力学性质来解释。组成原子的微观运动的总和随着系统温度的升高而增加; 这假设在系统的微观层次上没有其他的相互作用，例如化学反应、组成原子相互间的势能。

* [[Work (physics)|Work]] is a process of transferring energy to or from a system in ways that can be described by macroscopic mechanical forces exerted by factors in the surroundings, outside the system. Examples are an externally driven shaft agitating a stirrer within the system, or an externally imposed electric field that polarizes the material of the system, or a piston that compresses the system. Unless otherwise stated, it is customary to treat work as occurring without its [[dissipation]] to the surroundings. Practically speaking, in all natural process, some of the work is dissipated by internal friction or viscosity. The work done by the system can come from its overall kinetic energy, from its overall potential energy, or from its internal energy.

* [[Work (physics)|Work]] is a process of transferring energy to or from a system in ways that can be described by macroscopic mechanical forces exerted by factors in the surroundings, outside the system. '''<font color="#32CD32">Examples are an externally driven shaft agitating a stirrer within the system, or an externally imposed electric field that polarizes the material of the system, or a piston that compresses the system.</font>''' Unless otherwise stated, it is customary to treat work as occurring without its [[dissipation]] to the surroundings. Practically speaking, in all natural process, some of the work is dissipated by internal friction or viscosity. The work done by the system can come from its overall kinetic energy, from its overall potential energy, or from its internal energy.

做功是一种以某种方式向系统传递能量或从系统传递能量的过程，其方式可以用作用在系统外部及其周围环境之间的宏观机械力来描述。'''<font color="#32CD32">例如，外部驱动的轴在系统内搅动，或外部施加的电场使系统材料极化，或活塞压缩系统。</font>'''除非另有说明，习惯上把做功看作是在不影响周围环境的情况下发生的。实际上，在一切自然过程中，有些功是因内摩擦或粘黏而消失的。系统所做的功，可以来自于它的总动能，总势能或者它的内能。

做功是一种以某种方式向系统传递能量或从系统传递能量的过程，其方式可以用作用在系统外部及其周围环境之间的宏观机械力来描述。'''<font color="#32CD32">例如，外部驱动的轴在系统内搅动，或外部施加的电场使系统材料极化，或活塞压缩系统。</font>'''除非另有说明，习惯上把做功看作是在不影响周围环境的情况下发生的。实际上，在一切自然过程中，有些功是因内摩擦或粘黏而消失的。系统所做的功，可以来自于它的总动能，总势能或者它的内能。

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions.'''<font color="#32CD32"> The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.</font>'''

第二定律也告诉我们除了热传递之外的不可逆性，例如摩擦力和粘度，以及化学反应。'''<font color="#32CD32">需要熵的概念给该定律提供更广泛的范围。</font>'''

第二定律也告诉我们除了热传递之外的不可逆性，例如摩擦力和粘度，以及化学反应。'''<font color="#32CD32">需要熵的概念给该定律提供更广泛的范围。</font>'''

[[Entropy]] may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as ''disorder'' on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.<ref>Ben-Naim, A. (2008). ''A Farewell to Entropy: Statistical Thermodynamics Based on Information'', World Scientific, New Jersey, {{ISBN|978-981-270-706-2}}.</ref>

[[Entropy]] may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as ''disorder'' on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.<ref>Ben-Naim, A. (2008). ''A Farewell to Entropy: Statistical Thermodynamics Based on Information'', World Scientific, New Jersey, {{ISBN|978-981-270-706-2}}.</ref>

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them.'''<font color="#32CD32"> This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.</font>'''

当只知道宏观状态时，熵也可以被看作是对系统运动和构型的微观细节有关的物理度量。这种细节通常在微观或分子尺度上被称为无序。该定律声称，对于一个系统的两个给定的宏观指定状态，它们之间存在一个被称为熵差的量。'''<font color="#32CD32">这种熵的差异定义了需要多少额外的微观物理信息来指定一个宏观指定状态，给定另一个宏观指定状态-通常是一个方便选择的参考状态，这可能是假定存在的，而不是明确陈述的。自然过程的最终条件始终包含着微观上特定的影响，而这些影响，从过程初始条件的宏观规定来看是无法被完全准确预测的。这就是为什么熵在自然过程中会增加——熵的增加告诉我们需要多少额外的微观信息来区分最终的宏观指定状态和最初的宏观指定状态。</font>'''

当只知道宏观状态时，熵也可以被看作是对系统运动和构型的微观细节有关的物理度量。这种细节通常在微观或分子尺度上被称为无序。该定律声称，对于一个系统的两个给定的宏观指定状态，它们之间存在一个被称为熵差的量。'''<font color="#32CD32">这种熵的差异定义了需要多少额外的微观物理信息来指定一个宏观指定状态，给定另一个宏观指定状态-通常是一个方便选择的参考状态，这可能是假定存在的，而不是明确陈述的。自然过程的最终条件始终包含着微观上特定的影响，而这些影响，从过程初始条件的宏观规定来看是无法被完全准确预测的。这就是为什么熵在自然过程中会增加——熵的增加告诉我们需要多少额外的微观信息来区分最终的宏观指定状态和最初的宏观指定状态。</font>'''

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a [[glass]] that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a [[glass]] that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that'''<font color="#32CD32"> may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium,</font>''' at absolute zero temperature:

第三定律的一个更普遍的形式，适用于像玻璃这样的系统，'''<font color="#32CD32">可能有一个以上的微观上截然不同的能量状态，或可能有一个微观上截然不同的“冻结状态”，虽然不是一个严格意义上的的最低能量状态，也不是严格意义上的热力学平衡，</font>'''在绝对零度的温度下:

第三定律的一个更普遍的形式，适用于像玻璃这样的系统，'''<font color="#32CD32">可能有一个以上的微观上截然不同的能量状态，或可能有一个微观上截然不同的“冻结状态”，虽然不是一个严格意义上的的最低能量状态，也不是严格意义上的热力学平衡，</font>'''在绝对零度的温度下:

  --[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]（[[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]） “在绝对零度:” “在绝对零度下”？

   

:''The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.''

:''The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.''

[[Mechanical equivalent of heat|Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson)]] showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as [[Rudolf Clausius]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]], in his memoir ''Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids'', clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases.  Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.  Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

[[Mechanical equivalent of heat|Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson)]] showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as [[Rudolf Clausius]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]], in his memoir ''Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids'', clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases.  Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.  Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.  Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. '''<font color="#32CD32"> Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.</font>''' Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

大约在1797年，拉姆福德(出生于本杰明·汤普森)表明，无休止的机械作用可以从固定数量的工作物质中产生无限量的热量，从而挑战了热量理论。该理论认为在固定数量的工作物质中会有有限的热量 / 能量。1824年，萨迪·卡诺建立了第一个热力学原理，也就是后来的热力学第二定律。到1860年，正如鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯和威廉 · 汤姆森等人的著作所正式规定的那样，已经确立的两个热力学原理得到了发展，第一个原理和第二个原理，后来被重新定义为热力学定律。例如，1873年，热力学学家乔赛亚·威拉德·吉布斯在他的回忆录《流体热力学的图解法》中明确阐述了热力学的前两个绝对定律。整个20世纪的一些教科书对这些定律进行了不同的编号。在一些与化学无关的领域，第二定律被认为仅仅处理热机的效率问题，而所谓的第三定律则处理熵增问题。'''<font color="#32CD32">直接定义熵计算的零律不被认为是一条定律。</font>'''这种分离逐渐形成了第二定律，现代第三定律被广泛采用。

大约在1797年，拉姆福德(出生于本杰明·汤普森)表明，无休止的机械作用可以从固定数量的工作物质中产生无限量的热量，从而挑战了热量理论。该理论认为在固定数量的工作物质中会有有限的热量 / 能量。1824年，萨迪·卡诺建立了第一个热力学原理，也就是后来的热力学第二定律。到1860年，正如鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯和威廉 · 汤姆森等人的著作所正式规定的那样，已经确立的两个热力学原理得到了发展，第一个原理和第二个原理，后来被重新定义为热力学定律。例如，1873年，热力学学家乔赛亚·威拉德·吉布斯在他的回忆录《流体热力学的图解法》中明确阐述了热力学的前两个绝对定律。整个20世纪的一些教科书对这些定律进行了不同的编号。在一些与化学无关的领域，第二定律被认为仅仅处理热机的效率问题，而所谓的第三定律则处理熵增问题。'''<font color="#32CD32">直接定义熵计算的零律不被认为是一条定律。</font>'''这种分离逐渐形成了第二定律，现代第三定律被广泛采用。

==See also==<br>

==See also==<br>