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第437行： + + − This confusion may arise because feedback can be used for either ''informational'' or ''motivational'' purposes, and often has both a ''[[Qualitative property|qualitative]]'' and a ''[[Quantitative property|quantitative]]'' component. As Connellan and Zemke (1993) put it:+ 第412行：
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无编辑摘要
[[Centrifugal governor]]s were used to regulate the distance and pressure between [[millstone]]s in [[windmill]]s since the 17th century. In 1788, [[James Watt]] designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner [[Matthew Boulton]], for use in the [[steam engine]]s of their production. Early steam engines employed a purely [[reciprocating motion]], and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed.
[[Centrifugal governor]]s were used to regulate the distance and pressure between [[millstone]]s in [[windmill]]s since the 17th century. In 1788, [[James Watt]] designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner [[Matthew Boulton]], for use in the [[steam engine]]s of their production. Early steam engines employed a purely [[reciprocating motion]], and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed.
自17世纪以来，[[离心调速器]]被用于调节[[风车]]中[[磨石]]之间的距离和压力。1788年，[[詹姆斯·瓦特James Watt]]根据他的商业伙伴[[马修·布尔顿Matthew Boulton]]的建议，设计了他的第一个离心调速器，用于他们生产的[[蒸汽机]]。早期的蒸汽机采用纯粹的[[往复运动]]，用于抽水--这种应用不受工作速度的变化的影响，但蒸汽机在其他应用中的使用需要更精确的速度控制。
By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers (audions) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through regeneration), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing. This action of feeding back of the signal from output to input gave rise to the use of the term "feedback" as a distinct word by 1920.}}
By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers (audions) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through regeneration), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing. This action of feeding back of the signal from output to input gave rise to the use of the term "feedback" as a distinct word by 1920.}}
In [[1868]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] wrote a famous paper, "On governors", that is widely considered a classic in feedback control theory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume= 16|year= 1868 |pages= 270–283 | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1867.0055 | jstor=112510|doi-access=free}}</ref> This was a landmark paper on [[control theory]] and the mathematics of feedback.
In [[1868]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] wrote a famous paper, "On governors", that is widely considered a classic in feedback control theory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume= 16|year= 1868 |pages= 270–283 | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1867.0055 | jstor=112510|doi-access=free}}</ref> This was a landmark paper on [[control theory]] and the mathematics of feedback.
在[[1868年]]，[[詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦James Clerk Maxwell]]写了一篇著名的论文《论调速器》，被广泛认为是反馈控制理论的经典之作。<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|journal=伦敦皇家学会会刊|volume=16|year=1868|pages=270-283|doi = 10.1098/rspl.1867。 .0055 | jstor=112510|doi-access=free}}</ref> 这是一篇关于[[控制理论]]和反馈数学的里程碑式的论文。
Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback generally as "...information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter" that is used to "alter the gap in some way". He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action.
Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback generally as "...information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter" that is used to "alter the gap in some way". He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action.
By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers ([[audion tube|audions]]) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through [[Regenerative circuit|regeneration]]), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing.<ref name="bennett">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0-906-04807-9|title=A history of control engineering, 1800–1930|author=Stuart Bennett|publisher=Peregrinus for the Institution of Electrical Engineers|year=1979|isbn=978-0-906048-07-8|location=Stevenage; New York}}
By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers ([[audion tube|audions]]) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through [[Regenerative circuit|regeneration]]), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing.<ref name="bennett">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0-906-04807-9|title=A history of control engineering, 1800–1930|author=Stuart Bennett|publisher=Peregrinus for the Institution of Electrical Engineers|year=1979|isbn=978-0-906048-07-8|location=Stevenage; New York}}
到1912年底，使用早期电子放大器（[音频管]）的研究人员发现，将输出信号的一部分故意耦合回输入电路会提高放大率（通过[[再生电路]）。 ），但也会导致音频嘶哑或唱歌。<ref name =“ bennett”> {{引用书| url = http：//worldcat.org/isbn/0-906-04807-9 | title = A历史 控制工程学专业，1800–1930 |作者= Stuart Bennett |出版商=美国电气工程师学会百年纪念年| 1979 = isbn = 978-0-906048-07-8 |位置= Stevenage； 纽约}}
Negative feedback: If the signal fed back is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect to input signal, the feedback is called as negative feedback.
Negative feedback: If the signal fed back is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect to input signal, the feedback is called as negative feedback.
Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback generally as "...information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter" that is used to "alter the gap in some way". He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action.<ref name="Ramaprasad">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/bs.3830280103|title = On the definition of feedback| journal=Behavioral Science| volume=28| pages=4–13|year = 1983|last1 = Ramaprasad|first1 = Arkalgud}}</ref>
Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback generally as "...information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter" that is used to "alter the gap in some way". He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action.<ref name="Ramaprasad">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/bs.3830280103|title = On the definition of feedback| journal=Behavioral Science| volume=28| pages=4–13|year = 1983|last1 = Ramaprasad|first1 = Arkalgud}}</ref>
Ramaprasad(1983)专注于管理理论中的应用，将反馈定义为"......关于系统参数的实际水平和参考水平之间的差距的信息"，这些信息被用来 "以某种方式改变差距"。他强调，信息本身并不是反馈，除非转化为行动。<ref name="Ramaprasad">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/bs.3830280103|title = On the definition of feedback| journal=Behavioral Science| volume=28| pages=4-13|year = 1983|last1 = Ramaprasad|first1 = Arkalgud}}</ref>。
{{Quote|...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between "positive feed-back" and "negative feed-back", based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier's gain. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black's work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition.
{{Quote|...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between "positive feed-back" and "negative feed-back", based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier's gain. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black's work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition.
Positive feedback: If the signal fed back from output is in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback.
Positive feedback: If the signal fed back from output is in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback.
正反馈。如果输出端反馈的信号与输入信号同相，则称为正反馈。
Negative feedback: If the signal fed back is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect to input signal, the feedback is called as negative feedback.
Negative feedback: If the signal fed back is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect to input signal, the feedback is called as negative feedback.
负反馈。如果反馈的信号与输入信号极性相反或相位相差180°，则称为负反馈。
|title=Between Human and Machine : Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics.
|title=Between Human and Machine : Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics.
|题目：《人与机器之间：反馈、控制和计算在控制论之前》
Some systems with feedback can have very complex behaviors such as chaotic behaviors in non-linear systems, while others have much more predictable behaviors, such as those that are used to make and design digital systems.
Some systems with feedback can have very complex behaviors such as chaotic behaviors in non-linear systems, while others have much more predictable behaviors, such as those that are used to make and design digital systems.
According to Mindell (2002) confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:
According to Mindell (2002) confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:
据Mindell(2002年)说，在这之后不久就出现了术语上的混乱。
{{Quote|...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between "positive feed-back" and "negative feed-back", based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier's gain. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black's work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition.<ref name=mindell/>{{rp|page=121}}}}
{{Quote|...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between "positive feed-back" and "negative feed-back", based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier's gain. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black's work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition.<ref name=mindell/>{{rp|page=121}}}}
{{Quote|...Friis和Jensen对Black在 "正反馈 "和 "负反馈 "之间的区分是一样的，不是基于反馈本身的符号，而是基于它对放大器增益的影响。相反，Nyquist和Bode在Black的工作基础上，将负反馈称为符号相反的反馈。布莱克难以说服其他人相信他的发明的实用性，部分原因是在定义的基本问题上存在混乱。<ref name=mindell/>{{rp|page=121}}}}
In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. An example of this is insulin oscillations.
In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. An example of this is insulin oscillations.
Even prior to the terms being applied, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] had described several kinds of "component motions" associated with the [[centrifugal governor]]s used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that lead to a continual ''increase'' in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those that lead to a ''decrease'' of the same.<ref name=maxwell>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_Governors.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume= 16|year= 1868 |pages= 270–283|doi=10.1098/rspl.1867.0055|s2cid=51751195}}</ref>
Even prior to the terms being applied, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] had described several kinds of "component motions" associated with the [[centrifugal governor]]s used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that lead to a continual ''increase'' in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those that lead to a ''decrease'' of the same.<ref name=maxwell>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_Governors.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume= 16|year= 1868 |pages= 270–283|doi=10.1098/rspl.1867.0055|s2cid=51751195}}</ref>
甚至在这些术语被应用之前，[[詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦James Clerk Maxwell]]就已经描述了几种与蒸汽机中使用的[[离心式调速器]]相关的 "分量运动"，并区分了那些导致扰动或振荡幅度持续''增加''的运动和那些导致同样''减少''的运动。 <ref name=maxwell>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_Governors.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume=16|year=1868|pages=270-283|doi=10.1098/rspl.1867}。 .0055|s2cid=51751195}}</ref>
Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative. As in other contexts, positive and negative do not imply that the feedback causes good or bad effects. A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. The mirror neurons are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is "mirrored" by the brain—like a self-performed action.
Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative. As in other contexts, positive and negative do not imply that the feedback causes good or bad effects. A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. The mirror neurons are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is "mirrored" by the brain—like a self-performed action.
The terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines.
The terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines.
正反馈和负反馈这两个词在不同学科内有不同的定义。
In an injured or infected tissue, inflammatory mediators elicit feedback responses in cells, which alter gene expression, and change the groups of molecules expressed and secreted, including molecules that induce diverse cells to cooperate and restore tissue structure and function. This type of feedback is important because it enables coordination of immune responses and recovery from infections and injuries. During cancer, key elements of this feedback fail. This disrupts tissue function and immunity.
In an injured or infected tissue, inflammatory mediators elicit feedback responses in cells, which alter gene expression, and change the groups of molecules expressed and secreted, including molecules that induce diverse cells to cooperate and restore tissue structure and function. This type of feedback is important because it enables coordination of immune responses and recovery from infections and injuries. During cancer, key elements of this feedback fail. This disrupts tissue function and immunity.
# the altering of the ''gap'' between reference and actual values of a parameter, based on whether the gap is ''widening'' (positive) or ''narrowing'' (negative).<ref name="Ramaprasad" />
# the altering of the ''gap'' between reference and actual values of a parameter, based on whether the gap is ''widening'' (positive) or ''narrowing'' (negative).<ref name="Ramaprasad" />
# 改变参数参考值和实际值之间的 "差距"，根据差距是 "扩大"（正值）还是 "缩小"（负值）。
Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions.
Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions.
# the [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] of the ''action'' or ''effect'' that alters the gap, based on whether it has a ''happy'' (positive) or ''unhappy'' (negative) emotional connotation to the recipient or observer.<ref name=herold1977>Herold, David M., and Martin M. Greller. "Research Notes. FEEDBACK THE DEFINITION OF A CONSTRUCT." Academy of management Journal 20.1 (1977): 142-147.</ref>
# the [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] of the ''action'' or ''effect'' that alters the gap, based on whether it has a ''happy'' (positive) or ''unhappy'' (negative) emotional connotation to the recipient or observer.<ref name=herold1977>Herold, David M., and Martin M. Greller. "Research Notes. FEEDBACK THE DEFINITION OF A CONSTRUCT." Academy of management Journal 20.1 (1977): 142-147.</ref>
#改变差距的''行动''或''效果''的[[价位（心理学）|价位]]，基于它对接受者或观察者是否具有''快乐''（积极）或''不快乐''（消极）的情感内涵。"研究笔记。FEEDBACK THE DEFINITION OF A CONSTRUCT." 管理学院学报20.1（1977）：142-147.</ref>。
Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).
Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).
The two definitions may cause confusion, such as when an incentive (reward) is used to boost poor performance (narrow a gap). Referring to definition 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing ''positive/negative'' with ''self-reinforcing/self-correcting'',<ref name="senge">
The two definitions may cause confusion, such as when an incentive (reward) is used to boost poor performance (narrow a gap). Referring to definition 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing ''positive/negative'' with ''self-reinforcing/self-correcting'',<ref name="senge">
这两个定义可能会引起混淆，例如，当激励（奖励）被用来提高不良绩效（缩小差距）时。关于定义1，一些作者使用了其他术语，将 "积极/消极 "改为 "自我强化/自我纠正"，<ref name="senge">。
On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to predator-prey cycles.
On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to predator-prey cycles.
|title=The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization
|title=The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization
|标题=第五原则：学习型组织的艺术与实践
|year=1990
|year=1990
</ref> respectively. And for definition 2, some authors advocate describing the action or effect as positive/negative ''[[Reinforcement#Reinforcement|reinforcement]]'' or ''[[Reinforcement#Punishment|punishment]]'' rather than feedback.<ref name="Ramaprasad" /><ref name="skinner">
</ref> respectively. And for definition 2, some authors advocate describing the action or effect as positive/negative ''[[Reinforcement#Reinforcement|reinforcement]]'' or ''[[Reinforcement#Punishment|punishment]]'' rather than feedback.<ref name="Ramaprasad" /><ref name="skinner">
</参考>分别。而对于定义2，一些作者主张将行动或效果描述为正/负''[[强化#强化|强化]]''或''[[强化#惩罚|惩罚]]''，而不是反馈。<ref name="Ramaprasad" />ref name="skinner">。
The most common general-purpose controller using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the present error, the integral term on the accumulation of past errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of future error, based on current rate of change.
The most common general-purpose controller using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the present error, the integral term on the accumulation of past errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of future error, based on current rate of change.
BF Skinner, ''The Experimental Analysis of Behavior'', American Scientist, Vol. 45, No. 4 (SEPTEMBER 1957), pp. 343-371</ref>
BF Skinner, ''The Experimental Analysis of Behavior'', American Scientist, Vol. 45, No. 4 (SEPTEMBER 1957), pp. 343-371</ref>
BF Skinner，''行为的实验分析''，《美国科学家》，第45卷，第4期（1957年9月），第343-371页</ref>。
Yet even within a single discipline an example of feedback can be called either positive or negative, depending on how values are measured or referenced.<ref>
Yet even within a single discipline an example of feedback can be called either positive or negative, depending on how values are measured or referenced.<ref>
然而，即使在一个学科内，反馈的例子也可以被称为积极的或消极的，这取决于如何衡量或参考价值。
"However, after scrutinizing the statistical properties of the structural equations, the members of the committee assured themselves that it is possible to have a significant positive feedback loop when using standardized scores, and a negative loop when using real scores."
"However, after scrutinizing the statistical properties of the structural equations, the members of the committee assured themselves that it is possible to have a significant positive feedback loop when using standardized scores, and a negative loop when using real scores."
"但是，在仔细研究了结构方程的统计特性后，委员会成员保证，当使用标准化分数时，有可能出现明显的正反馈循环，而使用真实分数时，则出现负反馈循环。"
For feedback in the educational context, see corrective feedback.
For feedback in the educational context, see corrective feedback.
Ralph L. Levine, Hiram E. Fitzgerald. ''Analysis of the dynamic psychological systems: methods and applications'', {{ISBN|978-0306437465}} (1992) page 123</ref>
Ralph L. Levine, Hiram E. Fitzgerald. ''Analysis of the dynamic psychological systems: methods and applications'', {{ISBN|978-0306437465}} (1992) page 123</ref>
Ralph L. Levine, Hiram E. Fitzgerald. ''动态心理系统分析：方法与应用''，{{ISBN|978-0306437465}}。(1992年)第123页</参考>
This confusion may arise because feedback can be used for either ''informational'' or ''motivational'' purposes, and often has both a ''[[Qualitative property|qualitative]]'' and a ''[[Quantitative property|quantitative]]'' component. As Connellan and Zemke (1993) put it:
这种混淆可能会出现，因为反馈既可以用于''信息''，也可以用于''激励''的目的，而且往往同时具有''[[定性属性|定性]]'和''[[定量属性|定量]]'的成分。正如Connellan和Zemke(1993)所言。
In ancient times, the float valve was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman water clocks; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a carburettor and also used to regulate tank water level in the flush toilet.
In ancient times, the float valve was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman water clocks; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a carburettor and also used to regulate tank water level in the flush toilet.
{{Quote|''Quantitative'' feedback tells us how much and how many. ''Qualitative'' feedback tells us how good, bad or indifferent.<ref name=Connellan>Thomas K. Connellan and Ron Zemke, "Sustaining Knock Your Socks Off Service" AMACOM, 1 July 1993. {{ISBN|0-8144-7824-7}}</ref>{{rp|page=102}}}}
{{Quote|''Quantitative'' feedback tells us how much and how many. ''Qualitative'' feedback tells us how good, bad or indifferent.<ref name=Connellan>Thomas K. Connellan and Ron Zemke, "Sustaining Knock Your Socks Off Service" AMACOM, 1 July 1993. {{ISBN|0-8144-7824-7}}</ref>{{rp|page=102}}}}
{{引言|''定量''反馈告诉我们多少和多少。''定性''反馈告诉我们有多好、多坏或二者之间。<ref name=Connellan>Thomas K. Connellan and Ron Zemke, "Sustaining Knock Your Socks Off Service" AMACOM, 1 July 1993. {{ISBN|0-8144-7824-7}}</ref>{{rp|page=102}}}}
While simple systems can sometimes be described as one or the other type, many systems with feedback loops cannot be so easily designated as simply positive or negative, and this is especially true when multiple loops are present.
While simple systems can sometimes be described as one or the other type, many systems with feedback loops cannot be so easily designated as simply positive or negative, and this is especially true when multiple loops are present.
虽然简单的系统有时可以被描述为一种或另一种类型，但许多具有反馈回路的系统不能那么容易地被简单地指定为正或负，当存在多个回路时尤其如此。
The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the speed of his steam engine was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A mathematical analysis of Watt's governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.
The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the speed of his steam engine was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A mathematical analysis of Watt's governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.
{{Quote|When there are only two parts joined so that each affects the other, the properties of the feedback give important and useful information about the properties of the whole. But when the parts rise to even as few as four, if every one affects the other three, then twenty circuits can be traced through them; and knowing the properties of all the twenty circuits does not give complete information about the system.<ref name=Ashby/>{{rp|page=54}}}}
{{Quote|When there are only two parts joined so that each affects the other, the properties of the feedback give important and useful information about the properties of the whole. But when the parts rise to even as few as four, if every one affects the other three, then twenty circuits can be traced through them; and knowing the properties of all the twenty circuits does not give complete information about the system.<ref name=Ashby/>{{rp|page=54}}}}
{{引言|当只有两个部分连接在一起，以至于每个部分都会影响到另一个部分时，反馈的属性就能提供关于整体属性的重要而有用的信息。但是，当部分增加到甚至只有四个时，如果每一个都影响其他三个，那么就可以通过它们追踪到二十个回路；而知道所有这二十个回路的特性并不能提供有关系统的完整信息。<ref name=Ashby/>{{rp|page=54}}}}
Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.
Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.
The term bipolar feedback has been coined to refer to biological systems where positive and negative feedback systems can interact, the output of one affecting the input of another, and vice versa.<ref name=Smit>
The term bipolar feedback has been coined to refer to biological systems where positive and negative feedback systems can interact, the output of one affecting the input of another, and vice versa.<ref name=Smit>
术语双极反馈被创造出来是指生物系统，其中正反馈系统和负反馈系统可以相互作用，一个系统的输出会影响另一个系统的输入，反之亦然。<ref name = Smit>
The use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip-flops and counters. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.
The use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip-flops and counters. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.
{{Main|Dynamical system|Chaos theory|Edge of chaos|Control theory}}
{{Main|Dynamical system|Chaos theory|Edge of chaos|Control theory}}
{{主要|动力系统|混沌理论|混沌边缘|控制理论}}
By using feedback properties, the behavior of a system can be altered to meet the needs of an application; systems can be made stable, responsive or held constant. It is shown that dynamical systems with a feedback experience an adaptation to the [[edge of chaos]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wotherspoon|first1=T.|last2=Hubler|first2=A.|title=Adaptation to the edge of chaos with random-wavelet feedback|journal=J. Phys. Chem. A|date=2009|doi=10.1021/jp804420g|pmid=19072712|volume=113|issue=1|pages=19–22|bibcode=2009JPCA..113...19W}}</ref>
By using feedback properties, the behavior of a system can be altered to meet the needs of an application; systems can be made stable, responsive or held constant. It is shown that dynamical systems with a feedback experience an adaptation to the [[edge of chaos]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wotherspoon|first1=T.|last2=Hubler|first2=A.|title=Adaptation to the edge of chaos with random-wavelet feedback|journal=J. Phys. Chem. A|date=2009|doi=10.1021/jp804420g|pmid=19072712|volume=113|issue=1|pages=19–22|bibcode=2009JPCA..113...19W}}</ref>
通过使用反馈属性，可以更改系统的行为以满足应用程序的需求。 可以使系统稳定，响应迅速或保持恒定。 结果表明，具有反馈的动力系统会适应[[混沌边缘]]。<ref> {{引用日志| last1 = Wotherspoon | first1 = T。| last2 = Hubler | first2 = A。| title = 用随机小波反馈= J适应混沌的边缘。 物理 化学 A | date = 2009 | doi = 10.1021 / jp804420g | pmid = 19072712 | volume = 113 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–22 | bibcode = 2009JPCA..113 ... 19W}} </ ref>
===Biology===
===Biology===
{{See also|Homeostasis|Allostasis}}
{{See also|Homeostasis|Allostasis}}
{{另请参见|体内稳态|异体平衡}}
A Negative feedback occurs when the fed-back output signal has a relative phase of 180° with respect to the input signal (upside down). This situation is sometimes referred to as being out of phase, but that term also is used to indicate other phase separations, as in "90° out of phase". Negative feedback can be used to correct output errors or to desensitize a system to unwanted fluctuations. In feedback amplifiers, this correction is generally for waveform distortion reduction or to establish a specified gain level. A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the asymptotic gain model.
A Negative feedback occurs when the fed-back output signal has a relative phase of 180° with respect to the input signal (upside down). This situation is sometimes referred to as being out of phase, but that term also is used to indicate other phase separations, as in "90° out of phase". Negative feedback can be used to correct output errors or to desensitize a system to unwanted fluctuations. In feedback amplifiers, this correction is generally for waveform distortion reduction or to establish a specified gain level. A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the asymptotic gain model.
On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to [[Lotka–Volterra equation|predator-prey cycles]].<ref>
On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to [[Lotka–Volterra equation|predator-prey cycles]].<ref>
尽管反馈响应中的时滞会引起[[Lotka-Volterra方程-捕食者-被捕食者循环]]，但即使在很大程度上受到外部变化的影响，反馈也可以对动物种群产生稳定作用。
CS Holling. "Resilience and stability of ecological systems". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1-23. 1973</ref>
CS Holling. "Resilience and stability of ecological systems". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1-23. 1973</ref>
CS霍林。 “生态系统的复原力和稳定性”。 《生态与系统学年度评论》 4：1-23。 1973 </ ref>
A 4-bit [[ring counter using D-type flip flops]]
A 4-bit [[ring counter using D-type flip flops]]
In [[fermentation (biochemistry)|zymology]], feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct {{Not a typo|product(s)}} or downstream {{Not a typo|metabolite(s)}} in the metabolic pathway (see [[Allosteric regulation]]).
In [[fermentation (biochemistry)|zymology]], feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct {{Not a typo|product(s)}} or downstream {{Not a typo|metabolite(s)}} in the metabolic pathway (see [[Allosteric regulation]]).
在[[发酵（生物化学）|酶学]]中，反馈通过其直接的{{非错型|产物}}或下游的{{非错型|代谢产物}}来调节酶的活性。 在代谢途径中（见[[变构调节]]）。
A latch or a flip-flop is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. They typically constructed using feedback that crosses over between two arms of the circuit, to provide the circuit with a state. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Latches and flip-flops are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
A latch or a flip-flop is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. They typically constructed using feedback that crosses over between two arms of the circuit, to provide the circuit with a state. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Latches and flip-flops are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
The [[hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]] is largely controlled by positive and negative feedback, much of which is still unknown.
The [[hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]] is largely controlled by positive and negative feedback, much of which is still unknown.
[[下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴]]在很大程度上受到正反馈和负反馈的控制，其中的机制很大程度上仍然未知。
Latches and flip-flops are used as data storage elements. Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic. When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some reference timing signal.
Latches and flip-flops are used as data storage elements. Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic. When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some reference timing signal.
{{Main|Control theory}}
{{Main|Control theory}}
{{主要|控制理论}}
Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including [[state space (controls)]], [[full state feedback]], and so forth. Note that in the context of control theory, "feedback" is traditionally assumed to specify "negative feedback".<ref name=mees>
Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including [[state space (controls)]], [[full state feedback]], and so forth. Note that in the context of control theory, "feedback" is traditionally assumed to specify "negative feedback".<ref name=mees>
反馈在控制理论中被广泛使用，使用的方法有[[状态空间（控制）]]、[[全状态反馈]]等。需要注意的是，在控制理论的语境中，"反馈 "传统上被假定为指定 "负反馈"。
''"There is a tradition in control theory that one deals with a ''negative feedback loop'' in which a negative sign is included in the feedback loop..."''
''"There is a tradition in control theory that one deals with a ''negative feedback loop'' in which a negative sign is included in the feedback loop..."''
''"控制理论中有一个传统，即人们处理''负反馈环''，在反馈环中包括一个负号."'。
A.I.Mees, "Dynamics of Feedback Systems", New York: J. Wiley, c1981. {{ISBN|0-471-27822-X}}. p69</ref>
A.I.Mees, "Dynamics of Feedback Systems", New York: J. Wiley, c1981. {{ISBN|0-471-27822-X}}. p69</ref>
A.I. Mees，“反馈系统的动力学”，纽约：J.Wiley，c1981。 {{ISBN | 0-471-27822-X}}。 p69 </ ref>
{{Further|PID controller}}
{{Further|PID controller}}
{{进一步|PID控制器}}。、
The most common general-purpose [[controller (control theory)|controller]] using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a [[PID controller|proportional-integral-derivative]] (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the ''present'' error, the integral term on the accumulation of ''past'' errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of ''future'' error, based on current rate of change.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C18/E6-43-03-03.pdf | title = PID Control | last = Araki | first = M. }}</ref>
The most common general-purpose [[controller (control theory)|controller]] using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a [[PID controller|proportional-integral-derivative]] (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the ''present'' error, the integral term on the accumulation of ''past'' errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of ''future'' error, based on current rate of change.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C18/E6-43-03-03.pdf | title = PID Control | last = Araki | first = M. }}</ref>
最常见的使用控制环反馈机制的通用[[控制器（控制理论）|控制器]]是[[PID控制器|比例-积分-衍生]]。(PID)控制器。从启发式的角度来看，PID控制器的术语可以被解释为与时间相对应：比例术语取决于 "现在 "的误差，积分术语取决于 "过去 "误差的累积，而导数术语则是基于当前变化率的 "未来 "误差的预测。<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C18/E6-43-03-03.pdf | title = PID Control | last = Araki - first = M. }}</ref>
Feedback is also a useful design principle for designing user interfaces.
Feedback is also a useful design principle for designing user interfaces.
For feedback in the educational context, see [[corrective feedback]].
For feedback in the educational context, see [[corrective feedback]].
关于教育方面的反馈，见[[纠正性反馈]]。
Video feedback is the video equivalent of acoustic feedback. It involves a loop between a video camera input and a video output, e.g., a television screen or monitor. Aiming the camera at the display produces a complex video image based on the feedback.
Video feedback is the video equivalent of acoustic feedback. It involves a loop between a video camera input and a video output, e.g., a television screen or monitor. Aiming the camera at the display produces a complex video image based on the feedback.
In ancient times, the [[float valve]] was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman [[water clock]]s; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a [[carburettor]] and also used to regulate tank water level in the [[flush toilet]].
In ancient times, the [[float valve]] was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman [[water clock]]s; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a [[carburettor]] and also used to regulate tank water level in the [[flush toilet]].
在古代，[[浮阀]]在希腊和罗马的[[水钟]]中被用来调节水流；类似的浮阀被用来调节[[化油器]]中的燃料，也被用来调节[[抽水马桶]]中的水箱水位。
The Dutch inventor [[Cornelius Drebbel]] (1572-1633) built thermostats (c1620) to control the temperature of chicken incubators and chemical furnaces. In 1745, the windmill was improved by blacksmith Edmund Lee, who added a [[windmill fantail|fantail]] to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind. In 1787, [[Tom Mead]] regulated the rotation speed of a windmill by using a [[conical pendulum|centrifugal pendulum]] to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone (i.e., to adjust the load).
The Dutch inventor [[Cornelius Drebbel]] (1572-1633) built thermostats (c1620) to control the temperature of chicken incubators and chemical furnaces. In 1745, the windmill was improved by blacksmith Edmund Lee, who added a [[windmill fantail|fantail]] to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind. In 1787, [[Tom Mead]] regulated the rotation speed of a windmill by using a [[conical pendulum|centrifugal pendulum]] to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone (i.e., to adjust the load).
荷兰发明家[[科尼利厄斯·德雷贝尔Cornelius Drebbel]]。(1572-1633)制造了恒温器(c1620)来控制鸡笼和化学炉的温度。1745年，铁匠埃德蒙-李对风车进行了改进，他增加了一个[[风车扇尾|扇尾]]，以保持风车的面朝向风。1787年，[[汤姆·米德Tom Mead]]用[[锥形摆|离心摆]]来调节风车的转速，以调整床石与转轮石之间的距离（即调整负荷）。
The use of the [[centrifugal governor]] by [[James Watt]] in 1788 to regulate the speed of his [[steam engine]] was one factor leading to the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Steam engines also use float valves and [[relief valve|pressure release valves]] as mechanical regulation devices. A [[mathematical analysis]] of Watt's governor was done by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in 1868.<ref name=maxwell/>
The use of the [[centrifugal governor]] by [[James Watt]] in 1788 to regulate the speed of his [[steam engine]] was one factor leading to the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Steam engines also use float valves and [[relief valve|pressure release valves]] as mechanical regulation devices. A [[mathematical analysis]] of Watt's governor was done by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in 1868.<ref name=maxwell/>
1788年[[詹姆斯-瓦特]]使用[[离心调速器]]来调节他的[[蒸汽机]]的速度是导致[[工业革命]]的一个因素。蒸汽机还使用浮阀和[[溢流阀|压力释放阀]]作为机械调节装置。1868年，[[James Clerk Maxwell]]对瓦特的调速器进行了[[数学分析]].<ref name=maxwell/>。
The stock market is an example of a system prone to oscillatory "hunting", governed by positive and negative feedback resulting from cognitive and emotional factors among market participants. For example:
The stock market is an example of a system prone to oscillatory "hunting", governed by positive and negative feedback resulting from cognitive and emotional factors among market participants. For example:
The ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'' was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by [[John McFarlane Gray]]. [[Joseph Farcot]] coined the word ''[[Servomechanism|servo]]'' in 1873 to describe steam-powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. [[Elmer Ambrose Sperry]] of the [[Sperry Corporation]] designed the first [[autopilot]] in 1912. [[Nicolas Minorsky]] published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the [[PID controller]].<ref name="Minorsky">{{cite journal |author=Minorsky, Nicolas |year=1922 |title=Directional stability of automatically steered bodies |journal=J. Amer. Soc of Naval Engineers |volume=34 |issue= 2|pages=280–309 |doi= 10.1111/j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}}</ref>
The ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'' was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by [[John McFarlane Gray]]. [[Joseph Farcot]] coined the word ''[[Servomechanism|servo]]'' in 1873 to describe steam-powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. [[Elmer Ambrose Sperry]] of the [[Sperry Corporation]] designed the first [[autopilot]] in 1912. [[Nicolas Minorsky]] published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the [[PID controller]].<ref name="Minorsky">{{cite journal |author=Minorsky, Nicolas |year=1922 |title=Directional stability of automatically steered bodies |journal=J. Amer. Soc of Naval Engineers |volume=34 |issue= 2|pages=280–309 |doi= 10.1111/j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}}</ref>
“ [[SS Great Eastern | Great Eastern]]”是当时最大的汽轮之一，并采用了由[[John McFarlane Gray]]在1866年设计的带有反馈机制的蒸汽舵。 [[Joseph Farcot]]在1873年创造了“ [[Servomechanism | servo]]”一词来描述蒸汽动力转向系统。 后来使用液压伺服器来定位喷枪。 [[Sperry Corporation]的[Elmer Ambrose Sperry]设计了1912年的第一台[[autopilot]]。[[Nicolas Minorsky]]在1922年发表了关于自动船舶操纵的理论分析，并描述了[[PID控制器] ]。<ref name =“ Minorsky”> {{引用期刊|作者= Minorsky，尼古拉斯| year = 1922 | title =自动转向机构的方向稳定性| journal = J。 阿米尔。 海军工程师学会| volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 280–309 | doi = 10.1111 / j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}} </ ref>
''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'是当时最大的蒸汽船之一，采用了[[John McFarlane Gray]]于1866年设计的带有反馈装置的蒸汽动力舵。1873年，[[Joseph Farcot]]创造了''[[Servomechanism|servo]]''这个词来描述蒸汽动力转向系统。后来，液压伺服系统被用来定位火炮。1912年，[[斯佩里公司]]的[[埃尔默-安布罗斯-斯佩里]]设计了第一个[[自动驾驶仪]]。1922年，[[Nicolas Minorsky]]发表了船舶自动转向的理论分析，并描述了[[PID控制器]]。J.Amer.Soc of Naval Engineers Soc of Naval Engineers｜volume=34｜issue=2｜pages=280-309｜doi=10.1111/j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}}</ref>。
Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the [[Ignition timing#Vacuum timing advance|vacuum timing advance]] but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic [[engine control unit|engine management systems]] once small, robust and powerful single-chip [[microcontroller]]s became affordable.
Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the [[Ignition timing#Vacuum timing advance|vacuum timing advance]] but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic [[engine control unit|engine management systems]] once small, robust and powerful single-chip [[microcontroller]]s became affordable.
20世纪末的内燃机采用了[[点火正时#真空正时提前量|真空正时提前量]]等机械反馈机制，但一旦小型、坚固且功能强大的单片[[微控制器]]变得经济实惠，机械反馈就被电子[[发动机控制单元|发动机管理系统]]所取代。
[[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|The simplest form of a feedback amplifier can be represented by the ''ideal block diagram'' made up of [https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=%22A+unilateral+block+or+network+is+one+in+which+power+may+be+transmitted+in+one+direction+only.%22&num=10&gws_rd=ssl unilateral elements].<ref name="Chen">
[[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|The simplest form of a feedback amplifier can be represented by the ''ideal block diagram'' made up of [https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=%22A+unilateral+block+or+network+is+one+in+which+power+may+be+transmitted+in+one+direction+only.%22&num=10&gws_rd=ssl unilateral elements].<ref name="Chen">
[[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|反馈放大器最简单的形式可以用''理想框图''来表示，由[https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=%22A+单边+块+或+网络+是+一个+其中+功率+可能+只在+一个+方向+传输。%22&num=10&gws_rd=ssl单边元件].<ref name="陈">。
The conventional economic equilibrium model of supply and demand supports only ideal linear negative feedback and was heavily criticized by Paul Ormerod in his book The Death of Economics, which, in turn, was criticized by traditional economists. This book was part of a change of perspective as economists started to recognise that chaos theory applied to nonlinear feedback systems including financial markets.
The conventional economic equilibrium model of supply and demand supports only ideal linear negative feedback and was heavily criticized by Paul Ormerod in his book The Death of Economics, which, in turn, was criticized by traditional economists. This book was part of a change of perspective as economists started to recognise that chaos theory applied to nonlinear feedback systems including financial markets.
The use of feedback is widespread in the design of [[electronics|electronic]] components such as [[amplifier]]s, [[oscillator]]s, and stateful [[logic circuit]] elements such as [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s and [[counter (digital)|counter]]s. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.
The use of feedback is widespread in the design of [[electronics|electronic]] components such as [[amplifier]]s, [[oscillator]]s, and stateful [[logic circuit]] elements such as [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s and [[counter (digital)|counter]]s. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.
在[[电子学|电子学]]元件的设计中，反馈的使用非常广泛，如[[放大器]]、[[振荡器]]，以及有状态的[[逻辑电路]]元件，如[[倒装(电子学)｜倒装]]和[[计数器(数字)｜计数器]]。电子反馈系统也非常常用于控制机械、热和其他物理过程。
If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have ''[[negative feedback amplifier|negative feedback]]'';<ref name=KalS>
If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have ''[[negative feedback amplifier|negative feedback]]'';<ref name=KalS>
如果信号在绕过控制环路时被反转，则系统被称为''[[负反馈放大器|负反馈]''；<ref name=KalS>。
{{cite book |title=Basic Electronics: Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals |author=Santiram Kal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Bw_-ZyGL6YC&q=%22it+is+called+negative+feedback%22+%22if+the+feedback+signal+reduces+the+input+signal%22&pg=PA191 |quote=If the feedback signal reduces the input signal, ''i.e.'' it is out of phase with the input [signal], it is called negative feedback. |isbn=9788120319523 |year=2009 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd |page=191}}
{{cite book |title=Basic Electronics: Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals |author=Santiram Kal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Bw_-ZyGL6YC&q=%22it+is+called+negative+feedback%22+%22if+the+feedback+signal+reduces+the+input+signal%22&pg=PA191 |quote=If the feedback signal reduces the input signal, ''i.e.'' it is out of phase with the input [signal], it is called negative feedback. |isbn=9788120319523 |year=2009 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd |page=191}}
{{cite book|title=Basic Electronics: |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Bw_-ZyGL6YC&q=%22it+称为负反馈%22+%22如果+反馈信号+减少+输入信号%22&pg=PA191 |quote=如果反馈信号减少了输入信号，''即''与输入信号不相位，称为负反馈。|这就是所谓的 "负反馈"。}
</ref> otherwise, the feedback is said to be ''positive''. Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the [[BIBO stability|stability]] and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes. This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it. When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in over-correction, causing the output to [[oscillation|oscillate]] or "hunt".<ref>With mechanical devices, hunting can be severe enough to destroy the device.</ref> While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators.
</ref> otherwise, the feedback is said to be ''positive''. Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the [[BIBO stability|stability]] and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes. This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it. When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in over-correction, causing the output to [[oscillation|oscillate]] or "hunt".<ref>With mechanical devices, hunting can be severe enough to destroy the device.</ref> While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators.
</参考>否则，反馈将被称为 "正反馈"。负反馈经常被有意引入，以通过纠正或减少不需要的变化的影响来提高[[BIBO稳定性|稳定性]]和系统的精度。 如果输入变化的速度快于系统的响应速度，这种方案就会失效。 当发生这种情况时，校正信号到达的滞后会导致过度校正，从而导致输出[[振荡|oscillate]]或 "猎取"。<参考>对于机械装置而言，猎取可能严重到足以摧毁装置。</参考>虽然这种效果通常是系统行为的不希望出现的后果，但在电子振荡器中却被有意地使用。
[[Harry Nyquist]] at [[Bell Labs]] derived the [[Nyquist stability criterion]] for determining the stability of feedback systems. An easier method, but less general, is to use [[Bode plot]]s developed by [[Hendrik Wade Bode|Hendrik Bode]] to determine the [[Gain margin|gain margin and phase margin]]. Design to ensure stability often involves [[frequency compensation]] to control the location of the [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s of the amplifier.
[[Harry Nyquist]] at [[Bell Labs]] derived the [[Nyquist stability criterion]] for determining the stability of feedback systems. An easier method, but less general, is to use [[Bode plot]]s developed by [[Hendrik Wade Bode|Hendrik Bode]] to determine the [[Gain margin|gain margin and phase margin]]. Design to ensure stability often involves [[frequency compensation]] to control the location of the [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s of the amplifier.
贝尔实验室的[[哈里·奈奎斯特Harry Nyquist]]导出了[[Nyquist稳定性标准]]，用于确定反馈系统的稳定性。一种更简单但不太通用的方法是使用[[亨德里克-韦德-博德Hendrik Wade Bode|Hendrik Bode]]开发的[[Bode图]]来确定[[增益余量|增益余量和相位余量]]。确保稳定性的设计通常涉及[[频率补偿]]来控制放大器的[[极点（复杂分析）|极点]]的位置。
Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of [[electronics|electronic]] devices, such as [[amplifiers]]. A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input. A device is said to be operating ''open loop'' if no output feedback is being employed and ''closed loop'' if feedback is being used.<ref>P. Horowitz & W. Hill, ''The Art of Electronics'', Cambridge University Press (1980), Chapter 3, relating to operational amplifiers.</ref>
Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of [[electronics|electronic]] devices, such as [[amplifiers]]. A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input. A device is said to be operating ''open loop'' if no output feedback is being employed and ''closed loop'' if feedback is being used.<ref>P. Horowitz & W. Hill, ''The Art of Electronics'', Cambridge University Press (1980), Chapter 3, relating to operational amplifiers.</ref>
电子反馈环路用于控制[[电子|电子]]设备的输出，如[[放大器]]。当所有或部分输出被反馈到输入时，就形成了一个反馈环路。如果没有使用输出反馈，则称为 "开环"，如果使用了反馈，则称为 "闭环"。Horowitz 和 W. Hill，''电子艺术''，剑桥大学出版社（1980 年），第 3 章，涉及运算放大器。
When two or more amplifiers are cross-coupled using positive feedback, complex behaviors can be created. These ''[[multivibrator]]s'' are widely used and include:
When two or more amplifiers are cross-coupled using positive feedback, complex behaviors can be created. These ''[[multivibrator]]s'' are widely used and include:
当两个或多个放大器使用正反馈交叉耦合时，可以产生复杂的行为。这些''[[多振子]]''被广泛使用，包括：
* astable circuits, which act as oscillators
* astable circuits, which act as oscillators
*可控电路，作为振荡器使用
* monostable circuits, which can be pushed into a state, and will return to the stable state after some time
* monostable circuits, which can be pushed into a state, and will return to the stable state after some time
* 单稳态电路，可以将其推入一个状态，并在一段时间后恢复到稳定状态。
* bistable circuits, which have two stable states that the circuit can be switched between
* bistable circuits, which have two stable states that the circuit can be switched between
* 双稳态电路，它有两个稳定的状态，电路可以在这两个状态之间切换。
For an analysis of desensitization in the system pictured, see {{cite book |author=S.K Bhattacharya |title=Linear Control Systems |pages=134–135 |quote=The parameters of a system ... may vary... The primary advantage of using feedback in control systems is to reduce the system's sensitivity to parameter variations. |chapter=§5.3.1 Effect of feedback on parameter variations |isbn=9788131759523 |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Z1A_6jxAUC&q=%22primary+advantage+of+using+feedback+in+control+system+is+to+reduce+the+system%27s+sensitivity+to+parameter+variations%22&pg=PA135}}
For an analysis of desensitization in the system pictured, see {{cite book |author=S.K Bhattacharya |title=Linear Control Systems |pages=134–135 |quote=The parameters of a system ... may vary... The primary advantage of using feedback in control systems is to reduce the system's sensitivity to parameter variations. |chapter=§5.3.1 Effect of feedback on parameter variations |isbn=9788131759523 |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Z1A_6jxAUC&q=%22primary+advantage+of+using+feedback+in+control+system+is+to+reduce+the+system%27s+sensitivity+to+parameter+variations%22&pg=PA135}}
关于图中系统的脱敏分析，请参见{{cite book|author=S.K Bhattacharya|title=线性控制系统|pages=134-135|quote=系统的参数......可能会变化......。在控制系统中使用反馈的主要优点是降低系统对参数变化的敏感性。|实验结果表明，在控制系统中使用反馈的主要优点是降低系统对参数变化的敏感度。}
</ref> In feedback amplifiers, this correction is generally for waveform [[distortion]] reduction{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} or to establish a specified [[Gain (electronics)|gain]] level. A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the [[asymptotic gain model]].
</ref> In feedback amplifiers, this correction is generally for waveform [[distortion]] reduction{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} or to establish a specified [[Gain (electronics)|gain]] level. A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the [[asymptotic gain model]].
</参考>在反馈放大器中，这种校正通常用于减少波形[[失真]]{{引文所需|日期=2014年10月}}或建立指定的[[增益（电子学）|增益]]级别。负反馈放大器增益的一般表达式是[[渐进增益模型]]。
====Positive feedback====
====Positive feedback====
[[File:OpAmpHystereticOscillator.svg|thumb|A popular [[Relaxation oscillator#Comparator–based electronic relaxation oscillator|op-amp relaxation oscillator]].]]
[[File:OpAmpHystereticOscillator.svg|thumb|A popular [[Relaxation oscillator#Comparator–based electronic relaxation oscillator|op-amp relaxation oscillator]].]]
[[File:OpAmpHystereticOscillator.svg|thumb|一个流行的[[松弛振荡器#基于比较器的电子松弛振荡器|op-amp松弛振荡器]]。
An [[electronic oscillator]] is an [[electronic circuit]] that produces a periodic, [[oscillation|oscillating]] electronic signal, often a [[sine wave]] or a [[square wave]].<ref name="Snelgrove">{{cite encyclopedia
An [[electronic oscillator]] is an [[electronic circuit]] that produces a periodic, [[oscillation|oscillating]] electronic signal, often a [[sine wave]] or a [[square wave]].<ref name="Snelgrove">{{cite encyclopedia