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第393行： − + + + + + − Also, ideas from non-equilibrium thermodynamics and the informatic theory of entropy have been adapted to describe general economic systems.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Econodynamics. The Theory of Social Production.|last = Pokrovskii|first = Vladimir|publisher = Springer, Dordrecht-Heidelberg-London-New York.|year = 2011|isbn = |location = https://www.springer.com/physics/complexity/book/978-94-007-2095-4|pages = }}</ref>+ + − <ref>{{Cite book|title = The Unity of Science and Economics: A New Foundation of Economic Theory|last = Chen|first = Jing|publisher = Springer|year = 2015|isbn = |location = https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781493934645|pages = }}</ref> + + +
→Applications
有充分的实验证据表明，热对流不符合熵产生时间速率的极值原理。理论分析表明，化学反应没有遵循熵产生时间速率的二次微分极值原理，以目前的知识体系，一般性极值原理的发展似乎是不可行的。
有充分的实验证据表明，热对流不符合熵产生时间速率的极值原理。理论分析表明，化学反应没有遵循熵产生时间速率的二次微分极值原理，以目前的知识体系，一般性极值原理的发展似乎是不可行的。
==Applications==
== Applications 应用 ==
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been successfully applied to describe biological processes such as [[protein folding]]/unfolding and [[membrane transport|transport through membranes]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimizuka |first1=Hideo |last2=Kaibara |first2=Kozue |title=Nonequilibrium thermodynamics of ion transport through membranes |journal=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science |date=September 1975 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=516–525 |doi=10.1016/0021-9797(75)90276-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baranowski |first1=B. |title=Non-equilibrium thermodynamics as applied to membrane transport |journal=Journal of Membrane Science |date=April 1991 |volume=57 |issue=2–3 |pages=119–159 |doi=10.1016/S0376-7388(00)80675-4}}</ref>
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been successfully applied to describe biological processes such as [[protein folding]]/unfolding and [[membrane transport|transport through membranes]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimizuka |first1=Hideo |last2=Kaibara |first2=Kozue |title=Nonequilibrium thermodynamics of ion transport through membranes |journal=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science |date=September 1975 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=516–525 |doi=10.1016/0021-9797(75)90276-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baranowski |first1=B. |title=Non-equilibrium thermodynamics as applied to membrane transport |journal=Journal of Membrane Science |date=April 1991 |volume=57 |issue=2–3 |pages=119–159 |doi=10.1016/S0376-7388(00)80675-4}}</ref>
非平衡热力学已成功应用于生物学中，类似描述生物过程，例如蛋白质折叠/展开和通过膜的运输。
It is also used to give a description of the dynamics of nanoparticles, which can be out of equilibrium in systems where catalysis and electrochemical conversion is involved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bazant |first1=Martin Z. |title=Theory of Chemical Kinetics and Charge Transfer based on Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |date=22 March 2013 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1144–1160 |doi=10.1021/ar300145c|pmid=23520980 |arxiv=1208.1587 |s2cid=10827167 }}</ref>
It is also used to give a description of the dynamics of nanoparticles, which can be out of equilibrium in systems where catalysis and electrochemical conversion is involved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bazant |first1=Martin Z. |title=Theory of Chemical Kinetics and Charge Transfer based on Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |date=22 March 2013 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1144–1160 |doi=10.1021/ar300145c|pmid=23520980 |arxiv=1208.1587 |s2cid=10827167 }}</ref>
它也可用于描述纳米粒子的动力学，在涉及催化和电化学转化的系统中，纳米粒子的动力学可能不平衡。
Also, ideas from non-equilibrium thermodynamics and the informatic theory of entropy have been adapted to describe general economic systems.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Econodynamics. The Theory of Social Production.|last = Pokrovskii|first = Vladimir|publisher = Springer, Dordrecht-Heidelberg-London-New York.|year = 2011|location = https://www.springer.com/physics/complexity/book/978-94-007-2095-4}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Unity of Science and Economics: A New Foundation of Economic Theory|last = Chen|first = Jing|publisher = Springer|year = 2015|location = https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781493934645}}</ref>
同时，关于非平衡热力学和信息熵理论的思想，已经被用来描述一般的经济系统。
==See also==
==See also==