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A feedback loop where all outputs of a process are available as causal inputs to that process

A feedback loop where all outputs of a process are available as causal inputs to that process

Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems:

Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems:

当一个系统的输出作为输入被送回，并作为形成回路或循环的因果链的一部分时，就会产生<font color="#ff8000"> 反馈 feedback</font>。<ref name=Ford>{{cite book |title=Modeling the Environment |author=Andrew Ford |chapter=Chapter 9: Information feedback and causal loop diagrams |pages=99 ''ff'' |publisher=Island Press |year=2010 |isbn=9781610914253 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38PJahZTzC0C&pg=PA99lpg |quote=This chapter describes [[causal loop diagram]]s to portray the information feedback at work in a system. The word ''causal'' refers to cause-and-effect relationships. The word''loop'' refers to a closed chain of cause and effect that creates the feedback.}}</ref>这个系统可以说是反馈到了自身。在应用于反馈系统时，必须谨慎处理因果关系的概念。

当一个系统的输出作为输入被送回，并作为形成回路或循环的因果链的一部分时，就会产生<font color="#ff8000"> 反馈 feedback</font>。<ref name=Ford>{{cite book |title=Modeling the Environment |author=Andrew Ford |chapter=Chapter 9: Information feedback and causal loop diagrams |pages=99 ''ff'' |publisher=Island Press |year=2010 |isbn=9781610914253 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38PJahZTzC0C&pg=PA99lpg |quote=This chapter describes [[causal loop diagram]]s to portray the information feedback at work in a system. The word ''causal'' refers to cause-and-effect relationships. The word''loop'' refers to a closed chain of cause and effect that creates the feedback.}}</ref>这个系统可以说是反馈到了自身。在因果关系应用于反馈系统时，必须谨慎处理其概念。

{{引用

{{引用

|作者:卡尔·约翰·阿斯特洛姆 · 马丁 Karl Johan Åström和查德 · M · 默里 Richard M.Murray

|作者:卡尔·约翰·阿斯特洛姆 · 马丁 Karl Johan Åström和查德 · M · 默里 Richard M.Murray

| title = 反馈系统: 科学家和工程师介绍<ref>{{cite book |title=Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers |author1=Karl Johan Åström |author2=Richard M. Murray |chapter=§1.1: What is feedback? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdG9fNqTDS8C&q=%22This+makes+reasoning+based+on+cause+and+effect+tricky%22&pg=PA1 |isbn= 9781400828739 |year=2008 |page=1 |publisher=Princeton University Press}} Online version found [http://authors.library.caltech.edu/25062/1/Feedback08.pdf here].</ref>}

| title = 反馈系统: 科学家和工程师介绍<ref>{{cite book |title=Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers |author1=Karl Johan Åström |author2=Richard M. Murray |chapter=§1.1: What is feedback? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdG9fNqTDS8C&q=%22This+makes+reasoning+based+on+cause+and+effect+tricky%22&pg=PA1 |isbn= 9781400828739 |year=2008 |page=1 |publisher=Princeton University Press}} Online version found [http://authors.library.caltech.edu/25062/1/Feedback08.pdf here].</ref>}

Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the 17th century. In 1788, James Watt designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew Boulton, for use in the steam engines of their production. Early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed.

Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the 17th century. In 1788, James Watt designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew Boulton, for use in the steam engines of their production. Early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed.

自17世纪以来，[[离心调速器]]被用于调节[[风车]]中[[磨石]]之间的距离和压力。1788年，詹姆斯·瓦特 James Watt根据他的商业伙伴马修·布尔顿 Matthew Boulton的建议，设计了他的第一个离心调速器，用于他们生产的[[蒸汽机]]。早期的蒸汽机采用纯粹的[[往复运动]]，用于抽水——这种应用不受工作速度变化的影响，但蒸汽机在其他应用中的使用需要更精确的速度控制。

自17世纪以来，[[离心调速器]]被用于调节[[风车]]中[[磨石]]之间的距离和压力。1788年，詹姆斯·瓦特 James Watt根据他的商业伙伴马修·布尔顿 Matthew Boulton的建议，设计了他的第一个离心调速器，应用于他们生产的[[蒸汽机]]。早期的蒸汽机采用纯粹的[[往复运动]]，用于抽水——这种应用不受工作速度变化的影响，但蒸汽机在其他应用中的使用需要更精确的速度控制。

Over the years there has been some dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to Ashby (1956), mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of "circularity of action", which keeps the theory simple and consistent. For those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection.

Over the years there has been some dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to Ashby (1956), mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of "circularity of action", which keeps the theory simple and consistent. For those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection.

多年来，关于反馈的最佳定义一直存在一些争议。根据阿什比 Ashby(1956)的说法。对反馈机制原理感兴趣的数学家和理论家倾向于用 "作用的循环性 "来定义反馈，这使理论保持简洁和一致。对于那些有目的更实际的人来说，反馈应该是具体过程产生的一种有意的影响。

多年来，关于反馈的最佳定义一直存在一些争议。根据阿什比 Ashby(1956)的说法。对反馈机制原理感兴趣的数学家和理论家倾向于用 "作用的循环性 "来定义反馈，这使理论保持简洁和一致。对于那些有更实际目的的人来说，反馈应该是具体过程产生的特定的影响。

Even prior to the terms being applied, James Clerk Maxwell had described several kinds of "component motions" associated with the centrifugal governors used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that lead to a continual ''increase'' in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those that lead to a ''decrease'' of the same.

Even prior to the terms being applied, James Clerk Maxwell had described several kinds of "component motions" associated with the centrifugal governors used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that lead to a continual ''increase'' in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those that lead to a ''decrease'' of the same.

甚至在这些术语被应用之前，詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell就已经描述了几种与蒸汽机中使用的离心式调速器相关的 "运动分量"，并区分了那些导致扰动或振荡幅度持续''增加''的运动和那些导致其''减少''的运动。 <ref name=maxwell>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_Governors.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume=16|year=1868|pages=270-283|doi=10.1098/rspl.1867}。 .0055|s2cid=51751195}}</ref>

甚至在这些术语被应用之前，詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell就已经描述了几种与蒸汽机中使用的离心式调速器相关的 "运动分量"，并区分了那些导致扰动或振荡幅度持续''增加''的运动和那些导致其减少的运动。 <ref name=maxwell>{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=James Clerk|title=On Governors|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_Governors.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume=16|year=1868|pages=270-283|doi=10.1098/rspl.1867}。 .0055|s2cid=51751195}}</ref>

# the valence of the ''action'' or ''effect'' that alters the gap, based on whether it has a ''happy'' (positive) or ''unhappy'' (negative) emotional connotation to the recipient or observer.

# the valence of the ''action'' or ''effect'' that alters the gap, based on whether it has a ''happy'' (positive) or ''unhappy'' (negative) emotional connotation to the recipient or observer.

#改变差距的''行动''或''效果''的[[<font color="#ff8000"> 效价 valence</font>，基于它对接受者或观察者是否具有''快乐''（积极）或''不快乐''（消极）的情感内涵。<ref name=herold1977>Herold, David M., and Martin M. Greller. "Research Notes. FEEDBACK THE DEFINITION OF A CONSTRUCT." Academy of management Journal 20.1 (1977): 142-147.</ref>

#改变差距的行动或效果的<font color="#ff8000"> 效价 valence</font>，基于它对接受者或观察者是否具有''快乐''（积极）或''不快乐''（消极）的情感内涵。<ref name=herold1977>Herold, David M., and Martin M. Greller. "Research Notes. FEEDBACK THE DEFINITION OF A CONSTRUCT." Academy of management Journal 20.1 (1977): 142-147.</ref>

反馈在数字系统中得到了广泛的应用。例如，二进制计数器和类似的设备采用了反馈，即利用当前的状态和输入来计算一个新的状态，然后反馈到设备并计时更新它。

反馈在数字系统中得到了广泛的应用。例如，二进制计数器和类似的设备采用了反馈，即利用当前的状态和输入来计算一个新的状态，然后反馈到设备并计时更新它。

[[File:Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg|322px|thumb|Feedback can give rise to incredibly complex behaviors. The [[Mandelbrot set]] (black) within a continuously colored environment is plotted by repeatedly feeding back values through a simple equation and recording the points on the imaginary plane that fail to diverge|alt=]]

[[File:Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg|322px|thumb|Feedback can give rise to incredibly complex behaviors. The [[Mandelbrot set]] (black) within a continuously colored environment is plotted by repeatedly feeding back values through a simple equation and recording the points on the imaginary plane that fail to diverge|alt=]]

[[File:Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg|322px|thumb|反馈可以产生令人难以置信的复杂行为。通过一个简单的方程反复反馈数值，并记录虚平面上未能偏离的点，绘制出连续着色环境中的<font color="#ff8000"> 曼德尔布罗特集（布莱克） Mandelbrot set]] (black)</font>。]]

[[File:Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg|322px|thumb|反馈可以产生令人难以置信的复杂行为。通过一个简单的方程反复反馈数值，并记录虚平面上未能偏离的点，绘制出连续着色环境中的<font color="#ff8000"> 曼德尔布罗特集（布莱克） Mandelbrot set]] (black)</font>。

In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. An example of this is insulin oscillations.

In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. An example of this is insulin oscillations.

Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions.Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).

Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions.Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).

反馈机制首次在细菌中得到阐明，是一种营养物质会引起其部分代谢功能的变化。<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Sanwal|first1=BD| title= Allosteric controls of amphilbolic pathways in bacteria.|journal= Bacteriol. Rev.|date=March 1970|volume=34|issue=1|pages=20–39 |pmid=4315011 |pmc=378347|doi=10.1128/MMBR.34.1.20-39.1970}}</ref>反馈也是基因和基因调控网络运作的中心。用<font color="#ff8000"> 阻遏蛋白 Repressor</font>(参见 Lac 阻遏蛋白)和<font color="#ff8000"> 激活蛋白 activator protein</font>来创造<font color="#ff8000"> 基因操纵子  genetic operons protein</font>，这被弗朗索瓦·雅各布  Francois Jacob 和雅克·莫诺德 Jacques Monod 在1961年确定为反馈回路。<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Jacob|first1=F|last2=Monod|first2=J|title= Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins.|journal= J Mol Biol|date=June 1961|volume=3|issue=3|pages=318–356 |pmid=13718526|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(61)80072-7}}</ref>这些反馈回路可能是正的(例如糖分子和将糖输入细菌细胞的蛋白质之间的结合) ，也可能是负的(例如代谢消耗中经常出现的情况)。

反馈机制首次在细菌中得到阐明，是一种营养物质会引起其部分代谢功能的变化的机制。<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Sanwal|first1=BD| title= Allosteric controls of amphilbolic pathways in bacteria.|journal= Bacteriol. Rev.|date=March 1970|volume=34|issue=1|pages=20–39 |pmid=4315011 |pmc=378347|doi=10.1128/MMBR.34.1.20-39.1970}}</ref>反馈也是基因和基因调控网络运作的中心。用<font color="#ff8000"> 阻遏蛋白 Repressor</font>(参见 Lac 阻遏蛋白)和<font color="#ff8000"> 激活蛋白 activator protein</font>来创造<font color="#ff8000"> 基因操纵子  genetic operons protein</font>，这被弗朗索瓦·雅各布  Francois Jacob 和雅克·莫诺德 Jacques Monod 在1961年确定为反馈回路。<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Jacob|first1=F|last2=Monod|first2=J|title= Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins.|journal= J Mol Biol|date=June 1961|volume=3|issue=3|pages=318–356 |pmid=13718526|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(61)80072-7}}</ref>这些反馈回路可能是正的(例如糖分子和将糖输入细菌细胞的蛋白质之间的结合) ，也可能是负的(例如代谢消耗中经常出现的情况)。

关于教育方面的反馈，见纠正性反馈。

关于教育方面的反馈，见纠正性反馈。

The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the speed of his steam engine was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A mathematical analysis of Watt's governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.

The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the speed of his steam engine was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A mathematical analysis of Watt's governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.

1788年，詹姆斯·瓦特 James Watt 使用离心调速器来调节他的蒸汽机的速度是导致工业革命的一个因素。蒸汽发动机也使用浮阀和泄压阀作为机械调节装置。詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell在1868年对瓦特的调节器进行了数学分析。<ref name=maxwell/>

1788年，詹姆斯·瓦特 James Watt 使用离心调速器来调节他的蒸汽机的速度是导致工业革命的一个因素。蒸汽发动机也使用浮阀和泄压阀作为机械调节装置。詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell在1868年对Watt的调节器进行了数学分析。<ref name=maxwell/>

The 'Great Eastern'' was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by John McFarlane Gray. Joseph Farcot coined the word ''servo'' in 1873 to describe steam-powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. Elmer Ambrose Sperry of the Sperry Corporation designed the first autopilot in 1912. Nicolas Minorsky published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the PID controller.

The 'Great Eastern'' was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by John McFarlane Gray. Joseph Farcot coined the word ''servo'' in 1873 to describe steam-powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. Elmer Ambrose Sperry of the Sperry Corporation designed the first autopilot in 1912. Nicolas Minorsky published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the PID controller.

“Great Eastern”是当时最大的汽轮之一，并采用了由[[约翰·麦克法兰·格雷 John McFarlane Gray]]在1866年设计的带有反馈机制的蒸汽舵。约瑟夫·法尔科 [Joseph Farcot在1873年创造了“<font color="#ff8000"> 伺服系统 servo</font>”一词来描述蒸汽动力转向系统，后来伺服系统被用来定位喷枪。 斯佩里公司 Sperry Corporatio的[埃尔默·安布罗斯·斯佩里Elmer Ambrose Sperry在1912年设计了的第一台自动驾驶仪 autopilot。尼古拉斯·米诺尔斯基 Nicolas Minorsky在1922年发表了关于自动船舶操纵的理论分析，并描述了PID控制器]。<ref name="Minorsky">{{cite journal |author=Minorsky, Nicolas |year=1922 |title=Directional stability of automatically steered bodies |journal=J. Amer. Soc of Naval Engineers |volume=34 |issue= 2|pages=280–309 |doi= 10.1111/j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}}</ref>

“Great Eastern”是当时最大的汽轮之一，采用了由[[约翰·麦克法兰·格雷 John McFarlane Gray]]在1866年设计的带有反馈机制的蒸汽舵。约瑟夫·法尔科 [Joseph Farcot在1873年创造了“<font color="#ff8000"> 伺服系统 servo</font>”一词来描述蒸汽动力转向系统，后来伺服系统被用来定位喷枪。 斯佩里公司 Sperry Corporatio的[埃尔默·安布罗斯·斯佩里Elmer Ambrose Sperry在1912年设计了的第一台自动驾驶仪 autopilot。尼古拉斯·米诺尔斯基 Nicolas Minorsky在1922年发表了关于自动船舶操纵的理论分析，并描述了PID控制器。<ref name="Minorsky">{{cite journal |author=Minorsky, Nicolas |year=1922 |title=Directional stability of automatically steered bodies |journal=J. Amer. Soc of Naval Engineers |volume=34 |issue= 2|pages=280–309 |doi= 10.1111/j.1559-3584.1922.tb04958.x}}</ref>

Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.

Internal combustion engines of the late 20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.

The use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip-flops and counters. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.

The use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip-flops and counters. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes.