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Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS[2] (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/;[5] 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist,[6] best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.[7] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[8] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,[9] and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.[10]

Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS[2] (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/;[5] 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist,[6] best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.[7] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[8] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,[9] and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.[10]

查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文Charles Robert Darwin（/ ˈdɑːrwɪn /; 1809年2月12日至1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家。他因其对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着共同祖先Common ancestors，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，并被认为是科学的理论基础。在与阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由他称为自然选择Natural selection的过程产生的。在这种过程中，为生存而进行的斗争与参与选择性育种的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文被描述为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一，他因在威斯敏斯特大教堂的葬礼而倍感荣幸。

'''<font color="#ff8000"> 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文Charles Robert Darwin </font>'''（/ ˈdɑːrwɪn /; 1809年2月12日至1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家。他因其对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common ancestors</font>'''，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，并被认为是科学的理论基础。在与阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由他称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural selection</font>'''的过程产生的。在这种过程中，为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 选择性育种Selective breeding</font>'''的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文被描述为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一，他因在威斯敏斯特大教堂的葬礼而倍感荣幸。

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[11][12] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[13][14] Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[11][12] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[13][14] Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

达尔文在1859年出版的《物种起源On the Origin of Species》一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，其解释认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，认为自然选择是进化的基本机制。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性。

达尔文在1859年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种起源On the Origin of Species </font>'''》一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，其解释认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现'''<font color="#ff8000"> 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>'''，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，认为自然选择是进化的基本机制。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性。

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[19] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[20] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[21] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[13] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[19] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[20] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[21] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[13] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

在长达五年的航行过程中，达尔文对收集到的野生动植物和化石的地理分布记录感到困惑，于是开始了详细的研究，并于1838年提出了他的自然选择理论。尽管他与数位博物学家讨论了他的想法，但他仍需要时间进行更广泛的研究来验证，而且他的本职地质工作仍然需要继续。1858年，当阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace给他写了一篇描述同样想法的文章时，他正在撰写自己的理论，因此就促使了他们联合发表他们的理论。达尔文的工作建立了适应性调节进化的理论基础，作为自然界多元化的主要科学解释。1871年，他在《人类起源和性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex》一书中研究了人类的进化和性选择，以及与性相关的其他选择，之后在1872年还出版了另一本书《人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals》。他对植物的研究也发表在一系列著作中，在他的最后一本书《通过蠕虫的作用而形成的植物霉菌The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms》（1881年）中，他研究了蚯蚓及其对土壤的影响。

在长达五年的航行过程中，达尔文对收集到的野生动植物和化石的地理分布记录感到困惑，于是开始了详细的研究，并于1838年提出了他的自然选择理论。尽管他与数位博物学家讨论了他的想法，但他仍需要时间进行更广泛的研究来验证，而且他的本职地质工作仍然需要继续。1858年，当阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace给他写了一篇描述同样想法的文章时，他正在撰写自己的理论，因此就促使了他们联合发表他们的理论。达尔文的工作建立了适应性调节进化的理论基础，作为自然界多元化的主要科学解释。1871年，他在《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人类起源和性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中研究了人类的进化和性选择，以及与性相关的其他选择，之后在1872年还出版了另一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》。他对植物的研究也发表在一系列著作中，在他的最后一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 通过蠕虫的作用而形成的植物霉菌The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms </font>'''》（1881年）中，他研究了蚯蚓及其对土壤的影响。

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount.[24][25] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount.[24][25] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.

查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡什鲁斯伯里Shrewsbury自家山顶的小屋中。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生，金融家罗伯特·达尔文Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文Susannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿，达尔文在六个孩子中排名第五。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《动物法则》（1794年）中称赞了进化和共同祖先Common descent这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中包括未成熟的观念，这些观念预示着他孙子未来提出的概念。

查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡什鲁斯伯里Shrewsbury自家山顶的小屋中。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生，金融家罗伯特·达尔文Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文Susannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿，达尔文在六个孩子中排名第五。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物法则Zoonomia </font>'''》（1794年）中称赞了进化和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common descent</font>'''这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中包括未成熟的观念，这些观念预示着他孙子未来提出的概念。

In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals. Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals. Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

达尔文在他大学的第二年，加入了布里尼学会Plinian Society，这是由一群研究自然历史的学生组成的团体，在其中经常会有激烈的辩论，激进的民主学生以唯物主义的观点挑战了正统的科学宗教观念。期间，达尔文协助罗伯特·埃德蒙·格兰特Robert Edmond Grant对福斯峡湾Firth of Forth海洋无脊椎动物的解剖结构和生命周期进行了调查，并于1827年3月27日在布里尼学会期刊上提出了自己的发现，即牡蛎壳中发现的黑孢子是滑冰水蛭的卵。有一天，格兰特称赞拉马克的进化思想。格兰特的大胆令达尔文感到十分震惊，但当时他在祖父伊拉斯谟日记中也读到了类似的观点。同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括水成论Neptunism与火成论Plutonism之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学是欧洲最大的博物馆之一。

达尔文在他大学的第二年，加入了布里尼学会Plinian Society，这是由一群研究自然历史的学生组成的团体，在其中经常会有激烈的辩论，激进的民主学生以唯物主义的观点挑战了正统的科学宗教观念。期间，达尔文协助罗伯特·埃德蒙·格兰特Robert Edmond Grant对福斯峡湾Firth of Forth海洋无脊椎动物的解剖结构和生命周期进行了调查，并于1827年3月27日在布里尼学会期刊上提出了自己的发现，即牡蛎壳中发现的黑孢子是滑冰水蛭的卵。有一天，格兰特称赞拉马克的进化思想。格兰特的大胆令达尔文感到十分震惊，但当时他在祖父伊拉斯谟日记中也读到了类似的观点。同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学是欧洲最大的博物馆之一。

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32). Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32). Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.

达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲非常恼火，因此特地将他送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试的资格，他于1828年1月加入了普通学位课程。然而他却喜欢骑马和射击而不是学习。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，使达尔文认识了昆虫学，并影响了他进行甲虫收藏。他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯James Francis Stephens的《英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology》（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《天道溯源Evidences of Christianity》（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。

达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲非常恼火，因此特地将他送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试的资格，他于1828年1月加入了普通学位课程。然而他却喜欢骑马和射击而不是学习。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，使达尔文认识了昆虫学，并影响了他进行甲虫收藏。他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯James Francis Stephens的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature. He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature. He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.

为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥呆到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《自然神学Natural Theology》或《神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了适应其实是神通过自然法则行事。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。

为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥呆到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》或《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了适应其实是神通过自然法则行事。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。

 

===Survey voyage on HMS ''Beagle''===

===Survey voyage on HMS ''Beagle''===