961
个编辑
更改
跳到导航
跳到搜索
第401行：
第401行： − − Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection. To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September. On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder". Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject." − − 经过三年多的研究，达尔文的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书于1842年5月出版，这本书是关于他的珊瑚礁形成理论的。为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人在九月份搬到了乡下的唐人街。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克提到了他的理论，他以戏剧性的幽默写道: “这就像承认谋杀一样。”。胡克回答说: “在我看来，可能在不同的地点有一系列的产品，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到你认为这种变化是如何发生的，因为目前我对这个问题还没有什么看法。” − − − + − 达尔文在[ Down House 是他惯用的“思考之路”]的“沙行”+ 第418行：
第412行： − By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.+ − 到了7月，达尔文已经把他的“草图”扩展成了一篇230页的“论文” ，如果他过早地死去，他的研究成果将会被扩展。11月，匿名出版的轰动一时的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹引起了人们对蜕变的广泛兴趣。达尔文对其业余的地质学和动物学嗤之以鼻，但仔细审查了自己的论点。争论爆发了，尽管被科学家轻蔑地驳回，它仍然卖得很好。+ 第426行：
第420行： − + − − 达尔文在1846年完成了他的第三本地质学著作。现在，他对海洋无脊椎动物又有了新的兴趣和专长，可以追溯到他和格兰特一起上学的时候，他解剖和分类航行中收集的藤壶，欣赏美丽的结构，思考与相关结构的比较。1847年，胡克阅读了《论文》 ，并给达尔文提供了他所需要的冷静的批评性反馈，但他不愿承诺，并质疑达尔文反对继续创造行为的立场。 − − − − [[File:Darwins Thinking Path.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Path covered in sandy gravel winding through open woodland, with plants and shrubs growing on each side of the path.|Darwin's "sandwalk" at [[Down House]] was his usual "Thinking Path".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=132 114–116]}}</ref>]] − − In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died. − − 为了改善慢性病的健康状况，达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯 · 格利医生位于莫尔文的水疗中心，他惊奇地发现水疗有一些好处。后来，在1851年，他的宝贝女儿安妮病倒了，再次唤醒了他的恐惧，他担心他的病可能是遗传性的，在一系列的危机之后，安妮去世了。 − − − − By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p= 188}}</ref> In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084645/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> − − In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist. In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library. He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature". − − 在八年的藤壶(Cirripedia)研究工作中，达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性” ，表明身体部位略有改变，为了适应新的环境，发挥了不同的功能。在一些属中，他发现了微小的雄性寄生在雌雄同体上，显示了不同性别进化的中间阶段。1853年，它为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章，并使他成为享有盛誉的生物学家。1854年，他成为伦敦林奈学会图书馆的会员，通过邮政途径进入图书馆。他开始重新评估自己的物种理论，并在11月意识到后代性格的差异可以解释为他们适应了“自然经济中的多样化地方”。 − − − − Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in [[marine invertebrates]], dating back to his student days with [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]], by dissecting and classifying the [[barnacle]]s he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of [[creation myth|creation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 320–323, 339–348}}</ref> − − − − In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. [[James Manby Gully|James Gully]]'s [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] spa and was surprised to find some benefit from [[hydrotherapy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005457/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|archivedate=7 December 2008}}</ref> Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=498–501}}</ref> − − Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of [[natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."]] − − 查尔斯 · 达尔文，1855年46岁，当时正致力于发表他的[自然选择]理论。他在给胡克的信中谈到了这幅肖像画，“如果我的表情真像照片上那样糟糕，我怎么会只有一个朋友呢? ”] − − − − By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you." − − 1856年初，达尔文开始研究卵子和种子是否能够通过海水传播到大洋中，从而存活下来。胡克越来越怀疑物种是固定不变的传统观点，但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫胥黎仍然坚决反对物种的变异。莱尔被达尔文的猜测所吸引，却没有意识到其程度。当他读到阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士的一篇论文《论规范新物种引进的法则》时，他发现了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他出版论文以建立优先顺序。虽然达尔文没有看到威胁，但1856年5月14日他开始写一篇短文。为了找到难题的答案，他反复地坚持着，并且他扩展了自己的计划，写了一本名为《自然选择》的“物种大书” ，其中包括了他的“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士在内的世界各地的自然学家那里获得信息和标本。在1857年中期，他增加了一个章节标题: “理论应用于人类种族” ，但没有添加关于这个主题的文本。1857年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨 · 格雷提交了一份详细的自然选择理论纲要，其中包括一份省略了人类起源和性选择的自然选择理论摘要。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的一封信，询问这本书是否会考察人类起源。他回应说，他会回避这个话题，“这么多偏见” ，同时鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说，“我比你走得更远。” − − In eight years of work on [[barnacle]]s (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "[[homology (biology)|homologies]]" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some [[genus|genera]] he found minute males [[parasitism|parasitic]] on [[hermaphrodite]]s, showing an [[Androdioecy|intermediate stage]] in evolution of [[Gonochorism|distinct sexes]].<ref name=barlowbio117>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=121 117–118]}}</ref> In 1853, it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 383–387}}</ref> In 1854 he became a Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]], gaining postal access to its library.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|pp=107, 109}}</ref> He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 419–420}}</ref> − + − Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace, and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend. − 1858年6月18日，达尔文收到了华莱士关于自然选择的论文，他的书只写了一部分。达尔文对自己被“抢先”一步感到震惊，于是按照华莱士的要求，在当天把这本书寄给了莱尔。尽管华莱士没有要求出版，达尔文还是建议他把这本书寄给华莱士选择的任何一家期刊。他的家庭陷入了危机，村里的孩子死于猩红热，他把这件事交给了他的朋友们。经过一些讨论，由于没有可靠的方式让华莱士、莱尔和胡克参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林奈学会联合发表《物种形成多样性的趋势》和《通过自然选择的方法使多样性和物种永久化》。6月28日晚，达尔文的婴儿儿子在几乎一个星期的严重疾病之后死于猩红热，他心烦意乱无法出席。+
→Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research
[[文件:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|缩略图|右|1842年，达尔文与长子威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文William Erasmus Darwin。]]
[[文件:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|缩略图|右|1842年，达尔文与长子威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文William Erasmus Darwin。]]
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="autobio 120" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name=Letter419>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|archivedate=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name=JvW /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref>
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="autobio 120" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name=Letter419>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|archivedate=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name=JvW /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref>
Darwin's "sandwalk" at [[Down House was his usual "Thinking Path".]]
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",[97] as his "prime hobby".[103] His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.[13] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, and in particular, the barnacles.
达尔文现在有了他的“主要爱好”，即建立他自然选择理论“工作依据”的框架。他的研究包括广泛的动植物选择性实验育种，寻找证据证明物种非永恒不变，并研究调查许多其他方法以完善和证实他的理论。十五年来，他始终从事地质相关工作，并发表有关小猎犬号收集工作（特别是藤壶）的专家报告。
When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal and Remarks]]'' was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell]], who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref>
When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal and Remarks]]'' was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell]], who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref>
When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.[105] Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".
1839年5月，费兹罗伊的《叙事Narrative》出版，达尔文的第三卷《纪录与评论Darwin's Journal and Remarks》取得了巨大的成功，并于当年下半年独立发行。早在1842年，达尔文就向查尔斯·莱尔写下了他的想法，莱尔当时指出他的盟友“否认看到每种生物都有各自的原始祖先”。
Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of [[atoll]] formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archivedate=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archivedate=26 February 2009}}</ref>
Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of [[atoll]] formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archivedate=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archivedate=26 February 2009}}</ref>
Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.
Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.[107] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September.[108] On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".[109][110] Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."
经过三年多的工作，达尔文于1842年5月出版了关于环礁形成理论的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书，然后他完成了自然选择理论的第一本“铅笔素描”。后来为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人于9月搬到农村的Down House。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克Joseph Dalton Hooker提到了他的理论，并幽默地写着“这就像承认谋杀一样”。胡克回答说：“我认为可能在不同地点确有发生，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到您如何看待这种变化，因为目前没有其他设想能说得通。”
[[文件:Darwins Thinking Path.jpg|缩略图|右|达尔文Down House的“沙丘”是他经常行走的“思考之道”。]]
===Publication of the theory of natural selection===
===Publication of the theory of natural selection===