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第796行： − + − − − − ===Religious views=== + − [[File:Annie Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three quarter length studio photo of seated girl about nine years old, looking slightly plump and rather solemn, in a striped dress, holding a basket of flowers on her lap.|In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] died. By then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church.<ref name=jvw41>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=41}}</ref>]] − − Darwin's family tradition was [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformist]] [[Unitarianism]], while his father and grandfather were [[freethought|freethinkers]], and his [[baptism]] and [[boarding school]] were [[Church of England]].<ref name=skool /> When going to Cambridge to become an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] clergyman, he did not doubt the [[Biblical inerrancy|literal truth]] of the Bible.<ref name=dar57 /> He learned [[John Herschel]]'s science which, like [[William Paley]]'s [[natural theology]], sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw [[adaptation]] of species as [[teleological argument|evidence of design]].<ref name="syd5-7" /><ref name=db /> On board HMS ''Beagle'', Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on [[morality]].<ref name=biorelig>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=side&pageseq=87 85–96]}}</ref> He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,<ref name=k356 /> and suggested that the very similar [[antlion]]s found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.<ref name=Crows /> − − − − By his return, he was [[Historical criticism|critical of the Bible as history]], and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid.<ref name=biorelig /> In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the [[transmutation of species]], he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife [[Emma Darwin|Emma]], whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning.<ref name=Belief /> The [[theodicy]] of Paley and [[Thomas Malthus]] vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=8–14}}</ref> and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the [[ichneumon wasp]] paralysing [[caterpillar]]s as live food for its eggs.<ref name=miles /> Though he thought of religion as a [[tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of [[deism|God as an ultimate lawgiver]]. He was increasingly troubled by the [[problem of evil]].<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=4–5, 12–14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> − − − − Darwin remained close friends with the [[Vicar (Anglicanism)|vicar]] of Downe, [[John Brodie Innes]], and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Darwin and the church: historical essay |accessdate=26 November 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128133709/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |archivedate=28 November 2016 |date=5 June 2015 }}</ref> but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.<ref name=jvw41 /> He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"<ref name=Fordyce>[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html Letter 12041] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107174817/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html |date=7 November 2009 }} – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, 7 May 1879</ref><ref name=spencer>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion Darwin's Complex loss of Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211082018/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion |date=11 February 2017 }} [[The Guardian]] 17 September 2009</ref> and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".<ref name=Belief /><ref name=Fordyce /> − − − − The "[[Elizabeth, Lady Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2005}}<br />{{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref> − − − − . Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist, and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a medical student, he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in taxidermy. − − .达尔文是著名的博物学家、地质学家、生物学家和作家。在担任医师助理和两年医学学生之后，他接受了牧师的教育; 他还接受了动物标本制作的培训。 − − ===Human society=== − − Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported [[Reform Act 1832|electoral reform]] and the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation of slaves]]. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave [[John Edmonstone]], whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the ''Beagle'' voyage.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=196–198, 240}} These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century,<ref name=eddy /> but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilkins|2008|pp=408–413}}</ref>{{Ref label|G|VII|none}} Darwins interaction with [[Yaghan people|Yaghan]]s (Fuegians) such as [[Jemmy Button]] during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle]] had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to [[Tierra del Fuego]] he made a colourful description of "[[Fuegian]] savages".<ref name=Rozzi2018/> This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.<ref name=Rozzi2018>{{cite journal |last1=Rozzi |first1=Ricardo|author-link=Ricardo Rozzi |date=2018 |title=Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos: Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental|trans-title=Transformations of Darwin’s thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics |language=Spanish |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 267–277|doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] detailing 32-thousand words.<ref name=Rozzi2018/> He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."<ref name=barta>{{cite journal |first=Tony|last=Barta|title=Mr Darwin's shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide|journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39|issue=2|pages=116–137 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106170 |date=2 June 2005 |s2cid=159807728}}</ref> − − . Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas. − − .罗伯特 · 菲茨罗伊在这次圣经直译主义之旅后变得有名，但是在这个时候他对莱尔的想法产生了相当大的兴趣，他们在航行之前相遇了，当时莱尔要求在南美进行观测。菲茨罗伊在攀登巴塔哥尼亚的圣克鲁斯河时的日记中记录了他的观点，即平原是高耸的海滩，但是回来后，他又放弃了这些观点，因为他刚刚与一位非常虔诚的女士结婚。 − − − − He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell]] in her 1875 book ''[[The Sexes Throughout Nature]]''.<ref name=Vandermassen>{{cite journal |author=Vandermassen, Griet |title=Sexual Selection: A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial |journal=European Journal of Women's Studies |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=9 |doi=10.1177/1350506804039812 |pages=11–13 |ref=harv |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.3672 |s2cid=145221350 }}</ref> − − . In the section "Morphology" of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications." − − .在《物种起源章第十三章的“形态学”一节中，达尔文评论了人类和其他哺乳动物之间的骨骼同源模式，他写道: “还有什么比为抓握而形成的人的手、为挖掘而形成的鼹鼠的手、马的腿、海豚的桨和蝙蝠的翅膀，都应该按照同样的模式构造，并且应该包括同样的骨骼，在同样的相对位置更令人好奇呢? ”在最后一章: “人的手、蝙蝠的翅膀、海豚的鳍和马的腿的骨骼结构是一样的... ... 立刻用缓慢而连续的变化解释了下降理论。” − − − − Darwin was intrigued by his [[half-cousin]] [[Francis Galton]]'s argument, introduced in 1865, that [[Historiometry|statistical analysis]] of [[heredity]] showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In ''The Descent of Man'', Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear [[utopian]], plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=556–557, 572, 598}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=180 167–173], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=419 402–403]}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|title=Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin|accessdate=8 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102150434/http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|archivedate=2 January 2009}}</ref> Francis Galton named this field of study "[[eugenics]]" in 1883.{{Ref label|H|VIII|1}} After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies that went against his humanitarian principles.<ref name=barta/> − − . − + − In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man." − 在20世纪90年代物种起源，达尔文在他的结束语中提到了人类起源，他说: 在遥远的未来，我看到了更重要的研究的开放领域。心理学将建立在一个新的基础之上，即对各种心理力量和心理能力的必要获得。人类的起源和历史将被揭示出来。”在1874年第二版的序言中，他提到了第二点: “有几位批评家说，当我发现人类结构的许多细节无法通过自然选择来解释时，我发明了性选择; 然而，在《物种起源》第一版中，我对这一原则给出了相当清晰的概述，我在那里说它适用于人类。”+
→Views and opinions
乔治，弗朗西斯和霍拉斯在其尚存的孩子中，分别以天文学家，植物学家和土木工程师的身份成为皇家学会会员。三个人都被封为爵士。而另一个儿子伦纳德则前后担任了统计学家和进化生物学家罗纳德·费希尔的士兵，政治家，经济学家，优生主义者和导师。
乔治，弗朗西斯和霍拉斯在其尚存的孩子中，分别以天文学家，植物学家和土木工程师的身份成为皇家学会会员。三个人都被封为爵士。而另一个儿子伦纳德则前后担任了统计学家和进化生物学家罗纳德·费希尔的士兵，政治家，经济学家，优生主义者和导师。
==Views and opinions==
== Views and opinions 观点和意见==
=== Religious views 宗教观 ===
{{Details|Religious views of Charles Darwin}}
{{Details|Religious views of Charles Darwin}}
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[[文件:Annie Darwin.jpg|缩略图|左|1851年，达尔文的女儿安妮逝世，这给他带来了沉重的打击。到那时，他对基督教的信仰越来越少，他已经停止去教堂了。]]
=== Human society 人类社会 ===
==Evolutionary social movements==
==Evolutionary social movements==