更改

One of these organisms is ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'', an abundant [[coccolithophore]] [[algae]] which also has a role in the formation of [[cloud]]s.<ref name="Harding2006">{{cite book |author=Harding, Stephan |title=Animate Earth |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |date=2006 |pages=65 |isbn=978-1-933392-29-5 }}</ref> CO₂ excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO₂ locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitations necessary for terrestrial plants.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} Lately the atmospheric CO₂ concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean [[algal bloom]]s are also increasing.<ref>{{Cite web | date = 12 September 2007 | title = Interagency Report Says Harmful Algal Blooms Increasing | url = http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2007/sep07/noaa07-r435.html | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080209234239/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2007/sep07/noaa07-r435.html | archivedate = 9 February 2008 }}</ref>

One of these organisms is ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'', an abundant [[coccolithophore]] [[algae]] which also has a role in the formation of [[cloud]]s.<ref name="Harding2006">{{cite book |author=Harding, Stephan |title=Animate Earth |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |date=2006 |pages=65 |isbn=978-1-933392-29-5 }}</ref> CO₂ excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO₂ locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitations necessary for terrestrial plants.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} Lately the atmospheric CO₂ concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean [[algal bloom]]s are also increasing.<ref>{{Cite web | date = 12 September 2007 | title = Interagency Report Says Harmful Algal Blooms Increasing | url = http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2007/sep07/noaa07-r435.html | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080209234239/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2007/sep07/noaa07-r435.html | archivedate = 9 February 2008 }}</ref>

 

[[Lichen]] and other organisms accelerate the [[weathering]] of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO₂ levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO₂ by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.

[[Lichen]] and other organisms accelerate the [[weathering]] of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO₂ levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO₂ by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.

 

==历史==

==历史==

In the eighteenth century, as [[geology]] consolidated as a modern science, [[James Hutton]] maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked.<ref name=CapraWeb>{{cite book |author=Capra, Fritjof |title=The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems |publisher=Anchor Books |location=Garden City, N.Y |date=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/weboflifenewscie00capr/page/23 23] |isbn=978-0-385-47675-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/weboflifenewscie00capr/page/23 }}</ref> Later, the [[naturalist]] and explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust.<ref name=CapraWeb /> In the twentieth century, [[Vladimir Vernadsky]] formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian [[geochemist]] and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences.<ref>S.R. Weart, 2003, ''The Discovery of Global Warming'', Cambridge, Harvard Press</ref> His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community.

In the eighteenth century, as [[geology]] consolidated as a modern science, [[James Hutton]] maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked.<ref name=CapraWeb>{{cite book |author=Capra, Fritjof |title=The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems |publisher=Anchor Books |location=Garden City, N.Y |date=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/weboflifenewscie00capr/page/23 23] |isbn=978-0-385-47675-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/weboflifenewscie00capr/page/23 }}</ref> Later, the [[naturalist]] and explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust.<ref name=CapraWeb /> In the twentieth century, [[Vladimir Vernadsky]] formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian [[geochemist]] and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences.<ref>S.R. Weart, 2003, ''The Discovery of Global Warming'', Cambridge, Harvard Press</ref> His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community.

 

In the eighteenth century, as geology consolidated as a modern science, James Hutton maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked.[34] Later, the naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust.[34] In the twentieth century, Vladimir Vernadsky formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian geochemist and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences.[35] His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community.

In the eighteenth century, as geology consolidated as a modern science, James Hutton maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked.[34] Later, the naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust.[34] In the twentieth century, Vladimir Vernadsky formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian geochemist and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences.[35] His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community.

 

Also in the turn to the 20th century Aldo Leopold, pioneer in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation, suggested a living Earth in his biocentric or holistic ethics regarding land.

Also in the turn to the 20th century Aldo Leopold, pioneer in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation, suggested a living Earth in his biocentric or holistic ethics regarding land.

::— Stephan Harding, Animate Earth.<ref>Harding, Stephan. ''Animate Earth Science, Intuition and Gaia''. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2006, p. 44.</ref>

::— Stephan Harding, Animate Earth.<ref>Harding, Stephan. ''Animate Earth Science, Intuition and Gaia''. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2006, p. 44.</ref>

盖亚假说和环境运动的另一个总体影响来自苏联和美利坚合众国之间太空竞赛的副作用。在20世纪60年代，第一批进入太空的人类可以看到地球的整体面貌。1968年宇航员William Anders在Apollo 8任务期间拍摄的照片“地球升起”，通过概述效果成为全球生态运动的早期标志。<ref>[http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0309/lm11.html 100 Photographs that Changed the World by Life - The Digital Journalist]</ref>

盖亚假说和环境运动的另一个总体影响来自苏联和美利坚合众国之间太空竞赛的副作用。在20世纪60年代，第一批进入太空的人类可以看到地球的整体面貌。1968年宇航员William Anders在Apollo 8任务期间拍摄的照片“地球升起”，通过概述效果成为全球生态运动的早期标志。<ref>[http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0309/lm11.html 100 Photographs that Changed the World by Life - The Digital Journalist]</ref>

Lovelock started defining the idea of a self-regulating Earth controlled by the community of living organisms in September 1965, while working at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] in California on methods of detecting [[life on Mars (planet)|life on Mars]].<ref name="Lovelock1965">{{cite journal | author = Lovelock, J.E. | date = 1965 | title = A physical basis for life detection experiments | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 207 | issue = 7 | pages = 568–570 | doi = 10.1038/207568a0 | pmid=5883628|bibcode = 1965Natur.207..568L | ref = harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jameslovelock.org/page4.html |title=Geophysiology |access-date=2007-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070506073502/http://www.jameslovelock.org/page4.html |archive-date=2007-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>  The first paper to mention it was ''Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other Changes Associated with the Presence of Life'', co-authored with C.E. Giffin.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Lovelock, J.E. | author2 = Giffin, C.E. | date = 1969 | title = Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other changes associated with the presence of Life | journal = Advances in the Astronautical Sciences | volume = 25 | pages = 179–193 | isbn = 978-0-87703-028-7 | ref = harv}}</ref> A main concept was that life could be detected in a planetary scale by the chemical composition of the atmosphere. According to the data gathered by the [[Pic du Midi de Bigorre|Pic du Midi observatory]], planets like Mars or Venus had atmospheres in [[chemical equilibrium]]. This difference with the Earth atmosphere was considered to be a proof that there was no life in these planets.

Lovelock started defining the idea of a self-regulating Earth controlled by the community of living organisms in September 1965, while working at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] in California on methods of detecting [[life on Mars (planet)|life on Mars]].<ref name="Lovelock1965">{{cite journal | author = Lovelock, J.E. | date = 1965 | title = A physical basis for life detection experiments | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 207 | issue = 7 | pages = 568–570 | doi = 10.1038/207568a0 | pmid=5883628|bibcode = 1965Natur.207..568L | ref = harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jameslovelock.org/page4.html |title=Geophysiology |access-date=2007-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070506073502/http://www.jameslovelock.org/page4.html |archive-date=2007-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>  The first paper to mention it was ''Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other Changes Associated with the Presence of Life'', co-authored with C.E. Giffin.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Lovelock, J.E. | author2 = Giffin, C.E. | date = 1969 | title = Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other changes associated with the presence of Life | journal = Advances in the Astronautical Sciences | volume = 25 | pages = 179–193 | isbn = 978-0-87703-028-7 | ref = harv}}</ref> A main concept was that life could be detected in a planetary scale by the chemical composition of the atmosphere. According to the data gathered by the [[Pic du Midi de Bigorre|Pic du Midi observatory]], planets like Mars or Venus had atmospheres in [[chemical equilibrium]]. This difference with the Earth atmosphere was considered to be a proof that there was no life in these planets.

 

Lovelock formulated the ''Gaia Hypothesis'' in journal articles in 1972<ref name="J1972">{{cite journal | author = J. E. Lovelock | title = Gaia as seen through the atmosphere | date = 1972 | journal = [[Atmospheric Environment]] | volume = 6 | issue = 8 | pages = 579–580 | doi = 10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 | ref = harv|bibcode = 1972AtmEn...6..579L }}</ref> and 1974,<ref name="lovelock1974" /> followed by a popularizing 1979 book ''Gaia: A new look at life on Earth''. An article in the ''[[New Scientist]]'' of February 6, 1975,<ref>Lovelock, John and Sidney Epton, (February 8, 1975). "The quest for Gaia". [https://books.google.com/books?id=pnV6UYEkU4YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false New Scientist], p. 304.</ref> and a popular book length version of the hypothesis, published in 1979 as ''The Quest for Gaia'', began to attract scientific and critical attention.

Lovelock formulated the ''Gaia Hypothesis'' in journal articles in 1972<ref name="J1972">{{cite journal | author = J. E. Lovelock | title = Gaia as seen through the atmosphere | date = 1972 | journal = [[Atmospheric Environment]] | volume = 6 | issue = 8 | pages = 579–580 | doi = 10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 | ref = harv|bibcode = 1972AtmEn...6..579L }}</ref> and 1974,<ref name="lovelock1974" /> followed by a popularizing 1979 book ''Gaia: A new look at life on Earth''. An article in the ''[[New Scientist]]'' of February 6, 1975,<ref>Lovelock, John and Sidney Epton, (February 8, 1975). "The quest for Gaia". [https://books.google.com/books?id=pnV6UYEkU4YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false New Scientist], p. 304.</ref> and a popular book length version of the hypothesis, published in 1979 as ''The Quest for Gaia'', began to attract scientific and critical attention.

 

Lovelock called it first the Earth feedback hypothesis,<ref name="Lovelock01">Harding, Stephan. Animate Earth Science, Intuition and Gaia. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2006, p. 44. ISBN 1-933392-29-0</ref> and it was a way to explain the fact that combinations of chemicals including [[oxygen]] and [[methane]] persist in stable concentrations in the atmosphere of the Earth. Lovelock suggested detecting such combinations in other planets' atmospheres as a relatively reliable and cheap way to detect life.

Lovelock called it first the Earth feedback hypothesis,<ref name="Lovelock01">Harding, Stephan. Animate Earth Science, Intuition and Gaia. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2006, p. 44. ISBN 1-933392-29-0</ref> and it was a way to explain the fact that combinations of chemicals including [[oxygen]] and [[methane]] persist in stable concentrations in the atmosphere of the Earth. Lovelock suggested detecting such combinations in other planets' atmospheres as a relatively reliable and cheap way to detect life.

 

[[File:Lynn Margulis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lynn Margulis]]]]

[[File:Lynn Margulis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lynn Margulis]]]]

Later, other relationships such as sea creatures producing sulfur and iodine in approximately the same quantities as required by land creatures emerged and helped bolster the hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal | first1=W.D. | last1=Hamilton | first2=T.M. | last2=Lenton | title=Spora and Gaia: how microbes fly with their clouds | journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution | volume=10 | pages=1–16 | date=1998 | issue=1 | url=http://ejour-fup.unifi.it/index.php/eee/article/viewFile/787/733 | format=PDF | doi=10.1080/08927014.1998.9522867 | ref=harv | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723055017/http://ejour-fup.unifi.it/index.php/eee/article/viewFile/787/733 | archivedate=2011-07-23 }}</ref>

Later, other relationships such as sea creatures producing sulfur and iodine in approximately the same quantities as required by land creatures emerged and helped bolster the hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal | first1=W.D. | last1=Hamilton | first2=T.M. | last2=Lenton | title=Spora and Gaia: how microbes fly with their clouds | journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution | volume=10 | pages=1–16 | date=1998 | issue=1 | url=http://ejour-fup.unifi.it/index.php/eee/article/viewFile/787/733 | format=PDF | doi=10.1080/08927014.1998.9522867 | ref=harv | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723055017/http://ejour-fup.unifi.it/index.php/eee/article/viewFile/787/733 | archivedate=2011-07-23 }}</ref>

 

In 1971 [[microbiologist]] Dr. [[Lynn Margulis]] joined Lovelock in the effort of fleshing out the initial hypothesis into scientifically proven concepts, contributing her knowledge about how microbes affect the atmosphere and the different layers in the surface of the planet.<ref name="Turney, Jon 2003">{{cite book |author=Turney, Jon |title=Lovelock and Gaia: Signs of Life |publisher=Icon Books |location=UK |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-84046-458-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lovelockgaiasign0000turn }}</ref> The American biologist had also awakened criticism from the scientific community with her advocacy of the theory on the origin of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[organelle]]s and her contributions to the [[endosymbiotic theory]], nowadays accepted. Margulis dedicated the last of eight chapters in her book, ''The Symbiotic Planet'', to Gaia. However, she objected to the widespread personification of Gaia and stressed that Gaia is "not an organism", but "an emergent property of interaction among organisms". She defined Gaia as "the series of interacting ecosystems that compose a single huge ecosystem at the Earth's surface. Period". The book's most memorable "slogan" was actually quipped by a student of Margulis': "Gaia is just symbiosis as seen from space".

In 1971 [[microbiologist]] Dr. [[Lynn Margulis]] joined Lovelock in the effort of fleshing out the initial hypothesis into scientifically proven concepts, contributing her knowledge about how microbes affect the atmosphere and the different layers in the surface of the planet.<ref name="Turney, Jon 2003">{{cite book |author=Turney, Jon |title=Lovelock and Gaia: Signs of Life |publisher=Icon Books |location=UK |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-84046-458-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lovelockgaiasign0000turn }}</ref> The American biologist had also awakened criticism from the scientific community with her advocacy of the theory on the origin of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[organelle]]s and her contributions to the [[endosymbiotic theory]], nowadays accepted. Margulis dedicated the last of eight chapters in her book, ''The Symbiotic Planet'', to Gaia. However, she objected to the widespread personification of Gaia and stressed that Gaia is "not an organism", but "an emergent property of interaction among organisms". She defined Gaia as "the series of interacting ecosystems that compose a single huge ecosystem at the Earth's surface. Period". The book's most memorable "slogan" was actually quipped by a student of Margulis': "Gaia is just symbiosis as seen from space".

 

James Lovelock called his first proposal the ''Gaia hypothesis'' but has also used the term ''Gaia theory''. Lovelock states that the initial formulation was based on observation, but still lacked a scientific explanation. The Gaia hypothesis has since been supported by a number of scientific experiments<ref name="J1990">{{cite journal | author = J. E. Lovelock | title = Hands up for the Gaia hypothesis | date = 1990 | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 344 | issue = 6262 | pages = 100–2 | doi = 10.1038/344100a0|bibcode = 1990Natur.344..100L | ref = harv}}</ref> and provided a number of useful predictions.<ref name="Volk2003">{{cite book |author=Volk, Tyler |title=Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-262-72042-7 }}</ref> In fact, wider research proved the original hypothesis wrong, in the sense that it is not life alone but the whole Earth system that does the regulating.<ref name="vanishing255"/>

James Lovelock called his first proposal the ''Gaia hypothesis'' but has also used the term ''Gaia theory''. Lovelock states that the initial formulation was based on observation, but still lacked a scientific explanation. The Gaia hypothesis has since been supported by a number of scientific experiments<ref name="J1990">{{cite journal | author = J. E. Lovelock | title = Hands up for the Gaia hypothesis | date = 1990 | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 344 | issue = 6262 | pages = 100–2 | doi = 10.1038/344100a0|bibcode = 1990Natur.344..100L | ref = harv}}</ref> and provided a number of useful predictions.<ref name="Volk2003">{{cite book |author=Volk, Tyler |title=Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-262-72042-7 }}</ref> In fact, wider research proved the original hypothesis wrong, in the sense that it is not life alone but the whole Earth system that does the regulating.<ref name="vanishing255"/>

 

===第一次盖亚会议===

===第一次盖亚会议===