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== 关键的生物化学成分 ==
 
== 关键的生物化学成分 ==
更多信息:生物分子,细胞(生物学)和生物化学
   
[[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|right|thumb|upright=1.15|三酰甘油脂的结构]]
 
[[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|right|thumb|upright=1.15|三酰甘油脂的结构]]
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=== 消化 ===
 
=== 消化 ===
更多信息:消化和胃肠道
      
大分子不能直接被细胞处理。大分子必须先被分解成较小的单位,才能用于细胞代谢。不同类别的酶被用来消化这些聚合物。这些消化酶包括将蛋白质消化成氨基酸的蛋白酶,以及将多糖消化成单糖的糖苷水解酶<ref>{{cite book|last=Demirel, Yaşar|title=Energy : production, conversion, storage, conservation, and coupling|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-29650-0|edition=Second|location=Lincoln|pages=431}}</ref>。
 
大分子不能直接被细胞处理。大分子必须先被分解成较小的单位,才能用于细胞代谢。不同类别的酶被用来消化这些聚合物。这些消化酶包括将蛋白质消化成氨基酸的蛋白酶,以及将多糖消化成单糖的糖苷水解酶<ref>{{cite book|last=Demirel, Yaşar|title=Energy : production, conversion, storage, conservation, and coupling|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-29650-0|edition=Second|location=Lincoln|pages=431}}</ref>。
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=== 有机化合物的能量 ===
 
=== 有机化合物的能量 ===
更多信息:细胞呼吸,发酵(生物化学),碳水化合物分解代谢,脂肪分解代谢和蛋白质分解代谢
      
碳水化合物分解代谢是将碳水化合物分解成较小的单位的过程。碳水化合物一旦被消化成单糖,通常就被带入细胞。一旦进入细胞内<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bell GI, Burant CF, Takeda J, Gould GW | title = Structure and function of mammalian facilitative sugar transporters | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 268 | issue = 26 | pages = 19161–4 | date = September 1993 | pmid = 8366068 }}</ref>,分解的主要途径就是糖酵解,其中糖(例如葡萄糖和果糖)被转化为丙酮酸并生成一些ATP。<ref name=Bouche>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bouché C, Serdy S, Kahn CR, Goldfine AB | title = The cellular fate of glucose and its relevance in type 2 diabetes | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 25 | issue = 5 | pages = 807–30 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15466941 | doi = 10.1210/er.2003-0026 | df = dmy-all | doi-access = free }}</ref>丙酮酸是几种代谢途径中的中间体,但大多数通过有氧(含氧)糖酵解转化为乙酰辅酶A并进入三羧酸循环。尽管在三羧酸循环中会产生更多的ATP,但最重要的产物是NADH,它是由 NAD < sup > +  在乙酰辅酶A被氧化后制成的。这种氧化释放出作为废物的二氧化碳。在厌氧条件下,糖酵解产生乳酸盐,即由乳酸脱氢酶将丙酮酸盐转化为乳酸盐,同时将NADH重新氧化为NAD < sup > +  再用于糖酵解。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alfarouk KO, Verduzco D, Rauch C, Muddathir AK, Adil HH, Elhassan GO, Ibrahim ME, David Polo Orozco J, Cardone RA, Reshkin SJ, Harguindey S | display-authors = 6 | title = Glycolysis, tumor metabolism, cancer growth and dissemination. A new pH-based etiopathogenic perspective and therapeutic approach to an old cancer question | journal = Oncoscience | volume = 1 | issue = 12 | pages = 777–802 | date = 18 December 2014 | pmid = 25621294 | pmc = 4303887 | doi = 10.18632/oncoscience.109 | doi-access = free }}</ref>葡萄糖分解的另一种途径是磷酸戊糖途径,它还原辅酶NADPH并产生戊糖,如核糖(核酸的糖成分)。
 
碳水化合物分解代谢是将碳水化合物分解成较小的单位的过程。碳水化合物一旦被消化成单糖,通常就被带入细胞。一旦进入细胞内<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bell GI, Burant CF, Takeda J, Gould GW | title = Structure and function of mammalian facilitative sugar transporters | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 268 | issue = 26 | pages = 19161–4 | date = September 1993 | pmid = 8366068 }}</ref>,分解的主要途径就是糖酵解,其中糖(例如葡萄糖和果糖)被转化为丙酮酸并生成一些ATP。<ref name=Bouche>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bouché C, Serdy S, Kahn CR, Goldfine AB | title = The cellular fate of glucose and its relevance in type 2 diabetes | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 25 | issue = 5 | pages = 807–30 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15466941 | doi = 10.1210/er.2003-0026 | df = dmy-all | doi-access = free }}</ref>丙酮酸是几种代谢途径中的中间体,但大多数通过有氧(含氧)糖酵解转化为乙酰辅酶A并进入三羧酸循环。尽管在三羧酸循环中会产生更多的ATP,但最重要的产物是NADH,它是由 NAD < sup > +  在乙酰辅酶A被氧化后制成的。这种氧化释放出作为废物的二氧化碳。在厌氧条件下,糖酵解产生乳酸盐,即由乳酸脱氢酶将丙酮酸盐转化为乳酸盐,同时将NADH重新氧化为NAD < sup > +  再用于糖酵解。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alfarouk KO, Verduzco D, Rauch C, Muddathir AK, Adil HH, Elhassan GO, Ibrahim ME, David Polo Orozco J, Cardone RA, Reshkin SJ, Harguindey S | display-authors = 6 | title = Glycolysis, tumor metabolism, cancer growth and dissemination. A new pH-based etiopathogenic perspective and therapeutic approach to an old cancer question | journal = Oncoscience | volume = 1 | issue = 12 | pages = 777–802 | date = 18 December 2014 | pmid = 25621294 | pmc = 4303887 | doi = 10.18632/oncoscience.109 | doi-access = free }}</ref>葡萄糖分解的另一种途径是磷酸戊糖途径,它还原辅酶NADPH并产生戊糖,如核糖(核酸的糖成分)。
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== 能量转换 ==
 
== 能量转换 ==
 
=== 氧化磷酸化 ===
 
=== 氧化磷酸化 ===
更多信息:氧化磷酸化,化学渗透和线粒体
      
氧化磷酸化中,通过如柠檬酸循环等代谢途径,电子从被消化吸收的食物分子上转移到氧气上,并将产生的能量以ATP的方式储存起来。在真核生物中,这一过程是通过线粒体膜上的一系列膜蛋白来完成的,被称为电子传递链。而在原核生物中,这些蛋白质存在于细胞的内膜中。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hosler JP, Ferguson-Miller S, Mills DA | title = Energy transduction: proton transfer through the respiratory complexes | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 75 | issue =  | pages = 165–87 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16756489 | pmc = 2659341 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.062003.101730 }}</ref>这些蛋白质利用电子从还原性分子(如NADH)传递到氧气所释放的能量来泵送质子穿过细胞膜<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schultz BE, Chan SI | title = Structures and proton-pumping strategies of mitochondrial respiratory enzymes | journal = Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure | volume = 30 | issue =  | pages = 23–65 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11340051 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biophys.30.1.23 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/1623/1/SCHarbbs01.pdf }}</ref>。
 
氧化磷酸化中,通过如柠檬酸循环等代谢途径,电子从被消化吸收的食物分子上转移到氧气上,并将产生的能量以ATP的方式储存起来。在真核生物中,这一过程是通过线粒体膜上的一系列膜蛋白来完成的,被称为电子传递链。而在原核生物中,这些蛋白质存在于细胞的内膜中。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hosler JP, Ferguson-Miller S, Mills DA | title = Energy transduction: proton transfer through the respiratory complexes | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 75 | issue =  | pages = 165–87 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16756489 | pmc = 2659341 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.062003.101730 }}</ref>这些蛋白质利用电子从还原性分子(如NADH)传递到氧气所释放的能量来泵送质子穿过细胞膜<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schultz BE, Chan SI | title = Structures and proton-pumping strategies of mitochondrial respiratory enzymes | journal = Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure | volume = 30 | issue =  | pages = 23–65 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11340051 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biophys.30.1.23 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/1623/1/SCHarbbs01.pdf }}</ref>。
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=== 无机化合物的能量 ===
 
=== 无机化合物的能量 ===
更多信息:微生物代谢和氮循环
      
化能无机营养是在原核生物中发现的一种新陈代谢,其能量来自于无机化合物的氧化。这些生物可以利用氢气、<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Friedrich B, Schwartz E | title = Molecular biology of hydrogen utilization in aerobic chemolithotrophs | journal = Annual Review of Microbiology | volume = 47 | issue =  | pages = 351–83 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8257102 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.mi.47.100193.002031 }}</ref> 还原硫化合物(如硫化物、硫化氢和硫代硫酸酯<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weber KA, Achenbach LA, Coates JD | title = Microorganisms pumping iron: anaerobic microbial iron oxidation and reduction | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 4 | issue = 10 | pages = 752–64 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16980937 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro1490 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1203&context=bioscifacpub }}</ref>)或氨<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jetten MS, Strous M, van de Pas-Schoonen KT, Schalk J, van Dongen UG, van de Graaf AA, Logemann S, Muyzer G, van Loosdrecht MC, Kuenen JG | display-authors = 6 | title = The anaerobic oxidation of ammonium | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 22 | issue = 5 | pages = 421–37 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9990725 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00379.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>作为还原力的来源,它们从这些化合物与氧或亚硝酸盐等电子接受体的氧化作用中获得能量。这些微生物过程<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon J | title = Enzymology and bioenergetics of respiratory nitrite ammonification | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 285–309 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12165429 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00616.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>在全球生物地球化学循环(如乙酰化、硝化和反硝化)中非常重要,对土壤肥力也很关键<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Conrad R | title = Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases (H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO) | journal = Microbiological Reviews | volume = 60 | issue = 4 | pages = 609–40 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8987358 | pmc = 239458 | doi = 10.1128/MMBR.60.4.609-640.1996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barea JM, Pozo MJ, Azcón R, Azcón-Aguilar C | title = Microbial co-operation in the rhizosphere | journal = Journal of Experimental Botany | volume = 56 | issue = 417 | pages = 1761–78 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15911555 | doi = 10.1093/jxb/eri197 | doi-access = free }}</ref>。
 
化能无机营养是在原核生物中发现的一种新陈代谢,其能量来自于无机化合物的氧化。这些生物可以利用氢气、<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Friedrich B, Schwartz E | title = Molecular biology of hydrogen utilization in aerobic chemolithotrophs | journal = Annual Review of Microbiology | volume = 47 | issue =  | pages = 351–83 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8257102 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.mi.47.100193.002031 }}</ref> 还原硫化合物(如硫化物、硫化氢和硫代硫酸酯<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weber KA, Achenbach LA, Coates JD | title = Microorganisms pumping iron: anaerobic microbial iron oxidation and reduction | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 4 | issue = 10 | pages = 752–64 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16980937 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro1490 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1203&context=bioscifacpub }}</ref>)或氨<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jetten MS, Strous M, van de Pas-Schoonen KT, Schalk J, van Dongen UG, van de Graaf AA, Logemann S, Muyzer G, van Loosdrecht MC, Kuenen JG | display-authors = 6 | title = The anaerobic oxidation of ammonium | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 22 | issue = 5 | pages = 421–37 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9990725 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00379.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>作为还原力的来源,它们从这些化合物与氧或亚硝酸盐等电子接受体的氧化作用中获得能量。这些微生物过程<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon J | title = Enzymology and bioenergetics of respiratory nitrite ammonification | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 285–309 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12165429 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00616.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>在全球生物地球化学循环(如乙酰化、硝化和反硝化)中非常重要,对土壤肥力也很关键<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Conrad R | title = Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases (H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO) | journal = Microbiological Reviews | volume = 60 | issue = 4 | pages = 609–40 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8987358 | pmc = 239458 | doi = 10.1128/MMBR.60.4.609-640.1996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barea JM, Pozo MJ, Azcón R, Azcón-Aguilar C | title = Microbial co-operation in the rhizosphere | journal = Journal of Experimental Botany | volume = 56 | issue = 417 | pages = 1761–78 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15911555 | doi = 10.1093/jxb/eri197 | doi-access = free }}</ref>。
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=== 光能 ===
 
=== 光能 ===
更多信息:光养,光磷酸化和叶绿体
      
阳光中的能量被植物、蓝藻、紫细菌、绿硫细菌和一些原生生物所吸收。这个过程通常与二氧化碳转化为有机化合物相结合,这是光合作用的一部分,下文将对此进行讨论。然而,原核生物的能量捕获和碳固定系统可以单独运作,因为紫色细菌和绿硫细菌可以利用阳光作为能源,同时在碳固定和有机化合物发酵之间转换<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Meer MT, Schouten S, Bateson MM, Nübel U, Wieland A, Kühl M, de Leeuw JW, Sinninghe Damsté JS, Ward DM | display-authors = 6 | title = Diel variations in carbon metabolism by green nonsulfur-like bacteria in alkaline siliceous hot spring microbial mats from Yellowstone National Park | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 71 | issue = 7 | pages = 3978–86 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16000812 | pmc = 1168979 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.71.7.3978-3986.2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tichi MA, Tabita FR | title = Interactive control of Rhodobacter capsulatus redox-balancing systems during phototrophic metabolism | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 183 | issue = 21 | pages = 6344–54 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11591679 | pmc = 100130 | doi = 10.1128/JB.183.21.6344-6354.2001 }}</ref>。
 
阳光中的能量被植物、蓝藻、紫细菌、绿硫细菌和一些原生生物所吸收。这个过程通常与二氧化碳转化为有机化合物相结合,这是光合作用的一部分,下文将对此进行讨论。然而,原核生物的能量捕获和碳固定系统可以单独运作,因为紫色细菌和绿硫细菌可以利用阳光作为能源,同时在碳固定和有机化合物发酵之间转换<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Meer MT, Schouten S, Bateson MM, Nübel U, Wieland A, Kühl M, de Leeuw JW, Sinninghe Damsté JS, Ward DM | display-authors = 6 | title = Diel variations in carbon metabolism by green nonsulfur-like bacteria in alkaline siliceous hot spring microbial mats from Yellowstone National Park | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 71 | issue = 7 | pages = 3978–86 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16000812 | pmc = 1168979 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.71.7.3978-3986.2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tichi MA, Tabita FR | title = Interactive control of Rhodobacter capsulatus redox-balancing systems during phototrophic metabolism | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 183 | issue = 21 | pages = 6344–54 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11591679 | pmc = 100130 | doi = 10.1128/JB.183.21.6344-6354.2001 }}</ref>。
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== 合成代谢 ==
 
== 合成代谢 ==
更多信息:合成代谢
      
'''合成代谢'''是一系列建设性的新陈代谢过程,在这一系列过程中分解代谢所释放的能量被用来合成复杂的分子。一般来说,组成细胞结构的复杂分子是由小而简单的前体逐步构成的。合成代谢包括三个基本阶段。首先是氨基酸、单糖、异戊二烯和核苷酸等前体的产生,其次是利用ATP产生的能量将它们活化成活性形式,第三是将这些前体组装成复杂的分子,如蛋白质、多糖、脂质和核酸<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last=Mandal|first=Ananya|date=2009-11-26|title=What is Anabolism?|url=https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-Anabolism.aspx|access-date=2020-07-04|website=News-Medical.net|language=en}}</ref>。
 
'''合成代谢'''是一系列建设性的新陈代谢过程,在这一系列过程中分解代谢所释放的能量被用来合成复杂的分子。一般来说,组成细胞结构的复杂分子是由小而简单的前体逐步构成的。合成代谢包括三个基本阶段。首先是氨基酸、单糖、异戊二烯和核苷酸等前体的产生,其次是利用ATP产生的能量将它们活化成活性形式,第三是将这些前体组装成复杂的分子,如蛋白质、多糖、脂质和核酸<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last=Mandal|first=Ananya|date=2009-11-26|title=What is Anabolism?|url=https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-Anabolism.aspx|access-date=2020-07-04|website=News-Medical.net|language=en}}</ref>。
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=== 碳固定 ===
 
=== 碳固定 ===
更多信息:光合作用,碳固定和化学合成
      
[[File:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|含叶绿体(绿色)的植物细胞(以紫色壁为边界),叶绿体是光合作用的部位。]]
 
[[File:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|含叶绿体(绿色)的植物细胞(以紫色壁为边界),叶绿体是光合作用的部位。]]
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=== 碳水化合物和聚糖 ===
 
=== 碳水化合物和聚糖 ===
更多信息:糖异生,乙醛酸循环,糖异生和糖基化
      
在碳水化合物合成代谢过程中,简单的有机酸可转化为葡萄糖等单糖,再用于合成淀粉等多糖。由丙酮酸、乳酸、甘油、3-磷酸甘油酸和氨基酸等化合物生成葡萄糖称为葡萄糖异生。糖异生作用通过一系列中间产物将丙酮酸转化为葡萄糖-6-磷酸,其中许多中间产物与糖酵解过程相同<ref name=Bouche/>。然而,这一途径并不是简单的糖酵解逆向运行,因为有几个步骤是由非糖酵解酶催化的。这很重要,因为它使得葡萄糖的形成和分解可以分别被调节,而且防止了两条途径在无效循环中同时运行<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boiteux A, Hess B | title = Design of glycolysis | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 293 | issue = 1063 | pages = 5–22 | date = June 1981 | pmid = 6115423 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1981.0056 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1981RSPTB.293....5B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pilkis SJ, el-Maghrabi MR, Claus TH | title = Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in control of hepatic gluconeogenesis. From metabolites to molecular genetics | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 582–99 | date = June 1990 | pmid = 2162755 | doi = 10.2337/diacare.13.6.582  }}</ref>。
 
在碳水化合物合成代谢过程中,简单的有机酸可转化为葡萄糖等单糖,再用于合成淀粉等多糖。由丙酮酸、乳酸、甘油、3-磷酸甘油酸和氨基酸等化合物生成葡萄糖称为葡萄糖异生。糖异生作用通过一系列中间产物将丙酮酸转化为葡萄糖-6-磷酸,其中许多中间产物与糖酵解过程相同<ref name=Bouche/>。然而,这一途径并不是简单的糖酵解逆向运行,因为有几个步骤是由非糖酵解酶催化的。这很重要,因为它使得葡萄糖的形成和分解可以分别被调节,而且防止了两条途径在无效循环中同时运行<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boiteux A, Hess B | title = Design of glycolysis | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 293 | issue = 1063 | pages = 5–22 | date = June 1981 | pmid = 6115423 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1981.0056 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1981RSPTB.293....5B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pilkis SJ, el-Maghrabi MR, Claus TH | title = Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in control of hepatic gluconeogenesis. From metabolites to molecular genetics | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 582–99 | date = June 1990 | pmid = 2162755 | doi = 10.2337/diacare.13.6.582  }}</ref>。
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=== 脂肪酸,类异戊二烯和固醇 ===
 
=== 脂肪酸,类异戊二烯和固醇 ===
  −
更多信息:脂肪酸合成和类固醇代谢
      
[[File:Sterol synthesis.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|具有中间体异戊烯基焦磷酸酯(IPP),二甲基烯丙基焦磷酸酯(DMAPP),香叶基焦磷酸酯(GPP)和角鲨烯的类固醇合成途径的简化版本。为了清晰起见,省略了一些中间步骤。]]
 
[[File:Sterol synthesis.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|具有中间体异戊烯基焦磷酸酯(IPP),二甲基烯丙基焦磷酸酯(DMAPP),香叶基焦磷酸酯(GPP)和角鲨烯的类固醇合成途径的简化版本。为了清晰起见,省略了一些中间步骤。]]
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=== 蛋白质类 ===
 
=== 蛋白质类 ===
更多信息:蛋白质生物合成和氨基酸合成
      
生物体合成这20种常见氨基酸的能力各不相同。大多数细菌和植物都能合成这20种氨基酸,但哺乳动物只能合成11种非必需氨基酸,因此必须从食物中获得9种必需氨基酸<ref name="Nelson" />。所有的氨基酸都是由糖酵解、三羧酸循环或磷酸戊糖途径的中间产物合成的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Himmelreich R, Hilbert H, Plagens H, Pirkl E, Li BC, Herrmann R | title = Complete sequence analysis of the genome of the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 24 | issue = 22 | pages = 4420–49 | date = November 1996 | pmid = 8948633 | pmc = 146264 | doi = 10.1093/nar/24.22.4420 }}</ref>。氮由谷氨酸和谷氨酰胺提供。非关键氨基酸的合成取决于适当的α-酮酸的形成,它可以转氨基形成氨基酸<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Guyton |first1 = Arthur C. | first2 = John E. | last2 = Hall | name-list-style = vanc |title=Textbook of Medical Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/textbookmedicalp00acgu |url-access=limited |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |location=Philadelphia |pages=[https://archive.org/details/textbookmedicalp00acgu/page/n889 855]–6 |isbn=978-0-7216-0240-0}}</ref>。
 
生物体合成这20种常见氨基酸的能力各不相同。大多数细菌和植物都能合成这20种氨基酸,但哺乳动物只能合成11种非必需氨基酸,因此必须从食物中获得9种必需氨基酸<ref name="Nelson" />。所有的氨基酸都是由糖酵解、三羧酸循环或磷酸戊糖途径的中间产物合成的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Himmelreich R, Hilbert H, Plagens H, Pirkl E, Li BC, Herrmann R | title = Complete sequence analysis of the genome of the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 24 | issue = 22 | pages = 4420–49 | date = November 1996 | pmid = 8948633 | pmc = 146264 | doi = 10.1093/nar/24.22.4420 }}</ref>。氮由谷氨酸和谷氨酰胺提供。非关键氨基酸的合成取决于适当的α-酮酸的形成,它可以转氨基形成氨基酸<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Guyton |first1 = Arthur C. | first2 = John E. | last2 = Hall | name-list-style = vanc |title=Textbook of Medical Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/textbookmedicalp00acgu |url-access=limited |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |location=Philadelphia |pages=[https://archive.org/details/textbookmedicalp00acgu/page/n889 855]–6 |isbn=978-0-7216-0240-0}}</ref>。
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=== 核苷酸的合成和补救途径 ===
 
=== 核苷酸的合成和补救途径 ===
更多信息:核苷酸补救途径,嘧啶的生物合成和嘌呤§代谢
      
核苷酸由氨基酸、二氧化碳和甲酸在需要大量代谢能量的途径中生成<ref name=Rudolph>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudolph FB | title = The biochemistry and physiology of nucleotides | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 124 | issue = 1 Suppl | pages = 124S–127S | date = January 1994 | pmid = 8283301 | doi = 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_1.124S }} {{cite journal | vauthors = Zrenner R, Stitt M, Sonnewald U, Boldt R | title = Pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis and degradation in plants | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 57 | issue =  | pages = 805–36 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16669783 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105421 }}</ref>。因此,大多数生物体都有有效的系统来挽救预先形成的核苷酸<ref name=Rudolph/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stasolla C, Katahira R, Thorpe TA, Ashihara H | title = Purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism in higher plants | journal = Journal of Plant Physiology | volume = 160 | issue = 11 | pages = 1271–95 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14658380 | doi = 10.1078/0176-1617-01169 }}</ref>。嘌呤以核苷的形式合成(碱基附着在核糖上)。腺嘌呤和鸟嘌呤都是由一磷酸核苷肌苷前体合成的<ref name="pmid 22531138">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davies O, Mendes P, Smallbone K, Malys N | title = Characterisation of multiple substrate-specific (d)ITP/(d)XTPase and modelling of deaminated purine nucleotide metabolism | journal = BMB Reports | volume = 45 | issue = 4 | pages = 259–64 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22531138 | doi = 10.5483/BMBRep.2012.45.4.259 | url = http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/49510/1/WRAP_Malys_%5B45-4%5D1204261917_%28259-264%29BMB_11-169.pdf }}</ref>,而前体是由甘氨酸、谷氨酰胺和天冬氨酸的原子合成的,从辅酶四氢叶酸转移来的甲酸酯也是如此。另一方面,嘧啶是由磷酸基合成的,而磷酸基是由谷氨酰胺和天门冬氨酸形成的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith JL | title = Enzymes of nucleotide synthesis | journal = Current Opinion in Structural Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = 752–7 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8749362 | doi = 10.1016/0959-440X(95)80007-7 }}</ref>。
 
核苷酸由氨基酸、二氧化碳和甲酸在需要大量代谢能量的途径中生成<ref name=Rudolph>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudolph FB | title = The biochemistry and physiology of nucleotides | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 124 | issue = 1 Suppl | pages = 124S–127S | date = January 1994 | pmid = 8283301 | doi = 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_1.124S }} {{cite journal | vauthors = Zrenner R, Stitt M, Sonnewald U, Boldt R | title = Pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis and degradation in plants | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 57 | issue =  | pages = 805–36 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16669783 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105421 }}</ref>。因此,大多数生物体都有有效的系统来挽救预先形成的核苷酸<ref name=Rudolph/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stasolla C, Katahira R, Thorpe TA, Ashihara H | title = Purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism in higher plants | journal = Journal of Plant Physiology | volume = 160 | issue = 11 | pages = 1271–95 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14658380 | doi = 10.1078/0176-1617-01169 }}</ref>。嘌呤以核苷的形式合成(碱基附着在核糖上)。腺嘌呤和鸟嘌呤都是由一磷酸核苷肌苷前体合成的<ref name="pmid 22531138">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davies O, Mendes P, Smallbone K, Malys N | title = Characterisation of multiple substrate-specific (d)ITP/(d)XTPase and modelling of deaminated purine nucleotide metabolism | journal = BMB Reports | volume = 45 | issue = 4 | pages = 259–64 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22531138 | doi = 10.5483/BMBRep.2012.45.4.259 | url = http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/49510/1/WRAP_Malys_%5B45-4%5D1204261917_%28259-264%29BMB_11-169.pdf }}</ref>,而前体是由甘氨酸、谷氨酰胺和天冬氨酸的原子合成的,从辅酶四氢叶酸转移来的甲酸酯也是如此。另一方面,嘧啶是由磷酸基合成的,而磷酸基是由谷氨酰胺和天门冬氨酸形成的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith JL | title = Enzymes of nucleotide synthesis | journal = Current Opinion in Structural Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = 752–7 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8749362 | doi = 10.1016/0959-440X(95)80007-7 }}</ref>。
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== 异种生物学和氧化还原代谢 ==
 
== 异种生物学和氧化还原代谢 ==
更多信息:异生物质代谢,药物代谢,酒精代谢和抗氧化剂
      
所有的生物都不断地接触到它们不能进食的化合物,如果它们在细胞中积累这些化合物就会被伤害,因为它们没有新陈代谢功能。这些具有潜在破坏性的化合物被称为异生物质<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Testa B, Krämer SD | title = The biochemistry of drug metabolism--an introduction: part 1. Principles and overview | journal = Chemistry & Biodiversity | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 1053–101 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17193224 | doi = 10.1002/cbdv.200690111 }}</ref>。合成药物、天然毒物和抗生素等异生物质是通过一系列异生物质代谢酶来解毒的。在人体中,这些酶包括细胞色素 P450氧化酶<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Danielson PB | title = The cytochrome P450 superfamily: biochemistry, evolution and drug metabolism in humans | journal = Current Drug Metabolism | volume = 3 | issue = 6 | pages = 561–97 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12369887 | doi = 10.2174/1389200023337054 }}</ref>、UDP-葡萄糖醛酸转移酶<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = King CD, Rios GR, Green MD, Tephly TR | title = UDP-glucuronosyltransferases | journal = Current Drug Metabolism | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 143–61 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11465080 | doi = 10.2174/1389200003339171 }}</ref>和谷胱甘肽 s- 转移酶。这套酶系统的作用分为三个阶段<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sheehan D, Meade G, Foley VM, Dowd CA | title = Structure, function and evolution of glutathione transferases: implications for classification of non-mammalian members of an ancient enzyme superfamily | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 360 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 1–16 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11695986 | pmc = 1222196 | doi = 10.1042/0264-6021:3600001 }}</ref>,首先氧化异生物质(第一阶段) ,然后将水溶性基团共轭到分子上(第二阶段)。经过降解的水溶性异生物质随后会从细胞中泵出,对多细胞生物来说,还会在排出之前进一步代谢(第三阶段)。在生态学中,这些反应在微生物对污染物的生物降解以及污染土地和溢油的生物修复中尤为重要<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galvão TC, Mohn WW, de Lorenzo V | title = Exploring the microbial biodegradation and biotransformation gene pool | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 497–506 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16125262 | doi = 10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.08.002 }}</ref>。这些微生物反应中有许多是与多细胞生物相同的,但是由于微生物种类的惊人多样性,这些微生物能够处理比多细胞生物更广泛的异生物质,甚至能够降解有机氯化合物等持久性有机污染物<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Janssen DB, Dinkla IJ, Poelarends GJ, Terpstra P | title = Bacterial degradation of xenobiotic compounds: evolution and distribution of novel enzyme activities | journal = Environmental Microbiology | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = 1868–82 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16309386 | doi = 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00966.x | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/3623678/2005EnvironMicrobiolJanssen.pdf }}</ref>。
 
所有的生物都不断地接触到它们不能进食的化合物,如果它们在细胞中积累这些化合物就会被伤害,因为它们没有新陈代谢功能。这些具有潜在破坏性的化合物被称为异生物质<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Testa B, Krämer SD | title = The biochemistry of drug metabolism--an introduction: part 1. Principles and overview | journal = Chemistry & Biodiversity | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 1053–101 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17193224 | doi = 10.1002/cbdv.200690111 }}</ref>。合成药物、天然毒物和抗生素等异生物质是通过一系列异生物质代谢酶来解毒的。在人体中,这些酶包括细胞色素 P450氧化酶<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Danielson PB | title = The cytochrome P450 superfamily: biochemistry, evolution and drug metabolism in humans | journal = Current Drug Metabolism | volume = 3 | issue = 6 | pages = 561–97 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12369887 | doi = 10.2174/1389200023337054 }}</ref>、UDP-葡萄糖醛酸转移酶<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = King CD, Rios GR, Green MD, Tephly TR | title = UDP-glucuronosyltransferases | journal = Current Drug Metabolism | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 143–61 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11465080 | doi = 10.2174/1389200003339171 }}</ref>和谷胱甘肽 s- 转移酶。这套酶系统的作用分为三个阶段<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sheehan D, Meade G, Foley VM, Dowd CA | title = Structure, function and evolution of glutathione transferases: implications for classification of non-mammalian members of an ancient enzyme superfamily | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 360 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 1–16 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11695986 | pmc = 1222196 | doi = 10.1042/0264-6021:3600001 }}</ref>,首先氧化异生物质(第一阶段) ,然后将水溶性基团共轭到分子上(第二阶段)。经过降解的水溶性异生物质随后会从细胞中泵出,对多细胞生物来说,还会在排出之前进一步代谢(第三阶段)。在生态学中,这些反应在微生物对污染物的生物降解以及污染土地和溢油的生物修复中尤为重要<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galvão TC, Mohn WW, de Lorenzo V | title = Exploring the microbial biodegradation and biotransformation gene pool | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 497–506 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16125262 | doi = 10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.08.002 }}</ref>。这些微生物反应中有许多是与多细胞生物相同的,但是由于微生物种类的惊人多样性,这些微生物能够处理比多细胞生物更广泛的异生物质,甚至能够降解有机氯化合物等持久性有机污染物<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Janssen DB, Dinkla IJ, Poelarends GJ, Terpstra P | title = Bacterial degradation of xenobiotic compounds: evolution and distribution of novel enzyme activities | journal = Environmental Microbiology | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = 1868–82 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16309386 | doi = 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00966.x | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/3623678/2005EnvironMicrobiolJanssen.pdf }}</ref>。
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==生命有机体的热力学 ==
 
==生命有机体的热力学 ==
更多信息:生物热力学
      
生命有机体一定会遵守热力学定律,该定律描述了热量和功的传递。热力学第二定律指出,在任何封闭系统中,熵的总量(混乱度)不会减少。尽管生物体惊人的复杂性似乎与这一定律相矛盾,但生命是可能的,因为它们是与环境交换物质和能量的开放系统。也就是说,生命系统并不处于平衡状态,而是耗散系统,它通过大量增加环境熵来维持其高度复杂的状态<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = von Stockar U, Liu J | title = Does microbial life always feed on negative entropy? Thermodynamic analysis of microbial growth | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics | volume = 1412 | issue = 3 | pages = 191–211 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10482783 | doi = 10.1016/S0005-2728(99)00065-1 }}</ref>。细胞的新陈代谢通过将分解代谢的自发过程和合成代谢的非自发过程进行耦合来实现这一点。从热力学的角度来看,新陈代谢通过制造混乱来维持秩序<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Demirel Y, Sandler SI | title = Thermodynamics and bioenergetics | journal = Biophysical Chemistry | volume = 97 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 87–111 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12050002 | doi = 10.1016/S0301-4622(02)00069-8 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=chemengthermalmech }}</ref>。
 
生命有机体一定会遵守热力学定律,该定律描述了热量和功的传递。热力学第二定律指出,在任何封闭系统中,熵的总量(混乱度)不会减少。尽管生物体惊人的复杂性似乎与这一定律相矛盾,但生命是可能的,因为它们是与环境交换物质和能量的开放系统。也就是说,生命系统并不处于平衡状态,而是耗散系统,它通过大量增加环境熵来维持其高度复杂的状态<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = von Stockar U, Liu J | title = Does microbial life always feed on negative entropy? Thermodynamic analysis of microbial growth | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics | volume = 1412 | issue = 3 | pages = 191–211 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10482783 | doi = 10.1016/S0005-2728(99)00065-1 }}</ref>。细胞的新陈代谢通过将分解代谢的自发过程和合成代谢的非自发过程进行耦合来实现这一点。从热力学的角度来看,新陈代谢通过制造混乱来维持秩序<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Demirel Y, Sandler SI | title = Thermodynamics and bioenergetics | journal = Biophysical Chemistry | volume = 97 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 87–111 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12050002 | doi = 10.1016/S0301-4622(02)00069-8 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=chemengthermalmech }}</ref>。
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==调控 ==
 
==调控 ==
更多信息:代谢途径,代谢控制分析,激素,调节酶和细胞信号转导
      
由于大多数生物体的环境是不断变化的,因此它们必须对新陈代谢的反应进行精细的调节,以维持细胞内一系列恒定的条件,这种条件称为稳态<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Albert R | title = Scale-free networks in cell biology | journal = Journal of Cell Science | volume = 118 | issue = Pt 21 | pages = 4947–57 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16254242 | doi = 10.1242/jcs.02714 | arxiv = q-bio/0510054  | bibcode = 2005q.bio....10054A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brand MD | title = Regulation analysis of energy metabolism | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 200 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 193–202 | date = January 1997 | pmid = 9050227 | url = http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/200/2/193 }}</ref>。代谢调节也使生物体能够对信号作出反应,并与环境积极互动。有两个密切相关的概念对于理解“代谢途径是如何被控制的”十分重要<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soyer OS, Salathé M, Bonhoeffer S | title = Signal transduction networks: topology, response and biochemical processes | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 238 | issue = 2 | pages = 416–25 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16045939 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.05.030 }}</ref>。首先,途径中酶的调节是指其活性如何响应信号从而增加和减少。其次,这种酶所施加的控制是指它的活性变化对通路的总体速率(通过通路的通量)的影响<ref name="Salter">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salter M, Knowles RG, Pogson CI | title = Metabolic control | journal = Essays in Biochemistry | volume = 28 | issue =  | pages = 1–12 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7925313 }}</ref>。例如,一种酶可能表现出很大的活性变化(即它是高度受控的),但如果这些变化对某一代谢途径的通量影响不大,那么这种酶就不参与该途径的控制<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Westerhoff HV, Groen AK, Wanders RJ | title = Modern theories of metabolic control and their applications (review) | journal = Bioscience Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | date = January 1984 | pmid = 6365197 | doi = 10.1007/BF01120819 }}</ref>。
 
由于大多数生物体的环境是不断变化的,因此它们必须对新陈代谢的反应进行精细的调节,以维持细胞内一系列恒定的条件,这种条件称为稳态<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Albert R | title = Scale-free networks in cell biology | journal = Journal of Cell Science | volume = 118 | issue = Pt 21 | pages = 4947–57 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16254242 | doi = 10.1242/jcs.02714 | arxiv = q-bio/0510054  | bibcode = 2005q.bio....10054A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brand MD | title = Regulation analysis of energy metabolism | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 200 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 193–202 | date = January 1997 | pmid = 9050227 | url = http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/200/2/193 }}</ref>。代谢调节也使生物体能够对信号作出反应,并与环境积极互动。有两个密切相关的概念对于理解“代谢途径是如何被控制的”十分重要<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soyer OS, Salathé M, Bonhoeffer S | title = Signal transduction networks: topology, response and biochemical processes | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 238 | issue = 2 | pages = 416–25 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16045939 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.05.030 }}</ref>。首先,途径中酶的调节是指其活性如何响应信号从而增加和减少。其次,这种酶所施加的控制是指它的活性变化对通路的总体速率(通过通路的通量)的影响<ref name="Salter">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salter M, Knowles RG, Pogson CI | title = Metabolic control | journal = Essays in Biochemistry | volume = 28 | issue =  | pages = 1–12 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7925313 }}</ref>。例如,一种酶可能表现出很大的活性变化(即它是高度受控的),但如果这些变化对某一代谢途径的通量影响不大,那么这种酶就不参与该途径的控制<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Westerhoff HV, Groen AK, Wanders RJ | title = Modern theories of metabolic control and their applications (review) | journal = Bioscience Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | date = January 1984 | pmid = 6365197 | doi = 10.1007/BF01120819 }}</ref>。
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==演化 ==
 
==演化 ==
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更多信息:分子进化与系统发育
      
[[File:Tree of life int.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|演化树显示了来自全部三个生命领域的生物体的共同祖先。细菌呈蓝色,真核生物呈红色,古菌呈绿色。树木周围显示了一些门的相对位置。]]
 
[[File:Tree of life int.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|演化树显示了来自全部三个生命领域的生物体的共同祖先。细菌呈蓝色,真核生物呈红色,古菌呈绿色。树木周围显示了一些门的相对位置。]]
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==调查和操纵 ==
 
==调查和操纵 ==
更多信息:蛋白质方法,蛋白质组学,代谢组学和代谢网络建模
      
[[File:A thaliana metabolic network.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|拟南芥三羧酸循环的代谢网络。酶和代谢物显示为红色方块,它们之间的相互作用显示为黑线。]]
 
[[File:A thaliana metabolic network.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|拟南芥三羧酸循环的代谢网络。酶和代谢物显示为红色方块,它们之间的相互作用显示为黑线。]]
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==历史 ==
 
==历史 ==
更多信息:生物化学的历史和分子生物学的历史
      
新陈代谢这一术语源于法语“ métabolisme”或古希腊语 μταβoλλ -“Metabole”意为某种改变,它源自意为“去改变”的“ Metaballein”<ref>{{Cite web|title=metabolism {{!}} Origin and meaning of metabolism by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/metabolism|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
 
新陈代谢这一术语源于法语“ métabolisme”或古希腊语 μταβoλλ -“Metabole”意为某种改变,它源自意为“去改变”的“ Metaballein”<ref>{{Cite web|title=metabolism {{!}} Origin and meaning of metabolism by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/metabolism|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
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