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McCulloh gives a few of what he calls the “more interesting examples” of the application of these laws in extent and utility. His first example is [[physiology]], wherein he states that “the body of an animal, not less than a steamer, or a locomotive, is truly a [[heat engine]], and the consumption of food in the one is precisely analogous to the burning of fuel in the other; in both, the [[chemical reaction|chemical process]] is the same: that called [[combustion]].” He then incorporates a discussion of [[Antoine Lavoisier]]’s theory of respiration with cycles of digestion, excretion, and perspiration, but then contradicts Lavoisier with recent findings, such as internal heat generated by [[friction]], according to the new [[theory of heat]], which, according to McCulloh, states that the “heat of the body generally and uniformly is diffused instead of being concentrated in the chest”. McCulloh then gives an example of the second law, where he states that friction, especially in the smaller blood vessels, must develop heat. Undoubtedly, some fraction of the heat generated by animals is produced in this way. He then asks: “but whence the expenditure of energy causing that friction, and which must be itself accounted for?"

McCulloh gives a few of what he calls the “more interesting examples” of the application of these laws in extent and utility. His first example is [[physiology]], wherein he states that “the body of an animal, not less than a steamer, or a locomotive, is truly a [[heat engine]], and the consumption of food in the one is precisely analogous to the burning of fuel in the other; in both, the [[chemical reaction|chemical process]] is the same: that called [[combustion]].” He then incorporates a discussion of [[Antoine Lavoisier]]’s theory of respiration with cycles of digestion, excretion, and perspiration, but then contradicts Lavoisier with recent findings, such as internal heat generated by [[friction]], according to the new [[theory of heat]], which, according to McCulloh, states that the “heat of the body generally and uniformly is diffused instead of being concentrated in the chest”. McCulloh then gives an example of the second law, where he states that friction, especially in the smaller blood vessels, must develop heat. Undoubtedly, some fraction of the heat generated by animals is produced in this way. He then asks: “but whence the expenditure of energy causing that friction, and which must be itself accounted for?"

麦卡洛为了说明这些定律的适用范围和实际效用，给出了一些被他称之为“更有趣的例子” 。他举的第一个例子有关生理学，他指出，“动物的身体实质上就是一个热机，其食物消耗过程跟蒸汽机或火车头的燃料燃烧过程正是类似的; 这二者的化学过程是相同的: 即所谓的燃烧。”然后他把安托万-洛朗·德·拉瓦锡（Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier）的呼吸理论与消化、排泄和排汗的循环结合起来进行讨论，发现新的理论与拉瓦锡的理论相矛盾，比如根据新的热理论，内部热量是由于摩擦而产生，麦卡洛指出：“身体的热量一般均匀地扩散，而不是集中在胸部”。随后麦卡洛又针对于热力学第二定律举了一个例子，他断言只要有摩擦，尤其是小血管内的摩擦，一定会产生热量。毫无疑问，动物体内的部分热量就是这样产生的。他问道: “但是因摩擦而消耗的能量从何而来，而这个过程本身又该怎么理解呢? ”

麦卡洛为了说明这些定律的适用范围和实际效用，给出了一些被他称之为“更有趣的例子” 。他举的第一个例子有关生理学，他指出，“动物的身体实质上就是一个热机，食物消耗过程跟蒸汽机或火车头的燃料燃烧过程正是类似的，因为这二者的化学过程是相同的: 即所谓的燃烧。”然后他把安托万-洛朗·德·拉瓦锡（Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier）的呼吸理论与消化、排泄和排汗的循环结合起来进行讨论，发现新的理论与拉瓦锡的理论相矛盾，比如根据新的热理论，内部热量是由于摩擦而产生，麦卡洛指出：“身体的热量一般均匀地扩散，而不是集中在胸部”。随后麦卡洛又针对于热力学第二定律举了一个例子，他断言只要有摩擦，尤其是小血管内的摩擦，一定会产生热量。毫无疑问，动物体内的部分热量就是这样产生的。他问道: “但是因摩擦而消耗的能量从何而来，而这个过程本身又该怎么理解呢? ”

{{quote|Everything physical being subject to the law of conservation of energy, it follows that no physiological action can take place except with expenditure of energy derived from food; also, that an animal performing mechanical work must from the same quantity of food generate less heat than one abstaining from exertion, the difference being precisely the heat equivalent of that of work. The problem of organization in living systems increasing despite the second law is known as the Schrödinger paradox. In his note to Chapter 6 of What is Life?, however, Schrödinger remarks on his usage of the term negative entropy:

{{quote|Everything physical being subject to the law of conservation of energy, it follows that no physiological action can take place except with expenditure of energy derived from food; also, that an animal performing mechanical work must from the same quantity of food generate less heat than one abstaining from exertion, the difference being precisely the heat equivalent of that of work. The problem of organization in living systems increasing despite the second law is known as the Schrödinger paradox. In his note to Chapter 6 of What is Life?, however, Schrödinger remarks on his usage of the term negative entropy:

一切物理活动都受能量守恒定律的制约，因此，任何生理活动不可能不消耗从食物中获得的能量。而且，从同等质量食物中积累的热量，运动的动物比起不运动的动物要少，两者之间的差别应该正好等于动物运动做功产生的热量。尽管存在热力学第二定律，涉及到生命系统组织形式的问题仍有许多待解释的地方，这些被称为薛定谔悖论。在《什么是生命？》第六章中，薛定谔谈到了他对负熵这个术语的使用:

一切物理活动都受能量守恒定律的制约，因此，任何生理活动不可能不消耗从食物中获得的能量。而且，从同等质量食物中积累的热量，运动的动物比起不运动的动物要少，两者之间的差别应该正好等于动物运动做功产生的热量。生命系统组织形式的问题与热力学第二定律之间的存在的矛盾被称为薛定谔悖论。在《什么是生命？》第六章中，薛定谔谈到了他对负熵这个术语的使用:

{{quote|Everything physical being subject to the [[conservation of energy|law of conservation of energy]], it follows that no physiological action can take place except with expenditure of energy derived from food; also, that an animal performing [[mechanical work]] must from the same quantity of food generate less heat than one abstaining from exertion, the difference being precisely the [[Mechanical equivalent of heat|heat equivalent]] of that of work.<ref name="McCulloch1876"/>{{Rp|p. 270}}}}

{{quote|Everything physical being subject to the [[conservation of energy|law of conservation of energy]], it follows that no physiological action can take place except with expenditure of energy derived from food; also, that an animal performing [[mechanical work]] must from the same quantity of food generate less heat than one abstaining from exertion, the difference being precisely the [[Mechanical equivalent of heat|heat equivalent]] of that of work.<ref name="McCulloch1876"/>{{Rp|p. 270}}}}

In the 1944 book ''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)|What is Life?]]'', Austrian physicist [[Erwin Schrödinger]], who in 1933 had won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], theorized that life – contrary to the general tendency dictated by the [[second law of thermodynamics]], which states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase – decreases or keeps constant its entropy by feeding on negative entropy.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book| last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin  | title = What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 978-0-521-42708-1| title-link = What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell  }}</ref> <s>The problem of organization in living systems increasing despite the second law is known as the Schrödinger paradox.<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=Eric D.|last2=Sagan|first2=Dorion|title=Into the Cool: Energy Flow Thermodynamics and Life|year=2005|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, United States|pages=15}}</ref> In his note to Chapter 6 of ''What is Life?'', however, Schrödinger remarks on his usage of the term negative entropy:</s>

In the 1944 book ''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)|What is Life?]]'', Austrian physicist [[Erwin Schrödinger]], who in 1933 had won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], theorized that life – contrary to the general tendency dictated by the [[second law of thermodynamics]], which states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase – decreases or keeps constant its entropy by feeding on negative entropy.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book| last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin  | title = What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 978-0-521-42708-1| title-link = What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell  }}</ref> <s>The problem of organization in living systems increasing despite the second law is known as the Schrödinger paradox.<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=Eric D.|last2=Sagan|first2=Dorion|title=Into the Cool: Energy Flow Thermodynamics and Life|year=2005|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, United States|pages=15}}</ref> In his note to Chapter 6 of ''What is Life?'', however, Schrödinger remarks on his usage of the term negative entropy:</s>

1944年，在诺贝尔物理学奖获得者埃尔温·薛定谔（Erwin Schrödinger）的著作——《什么是生命？》中认为，生命与热力学第二定律所规定的一般趋势相反，通常情况下，一个孤立系统的熵往往倾向于增加，但是生命可以依赖于负熵从而保持其熵量不变甚至减少<ref name=":4" />。<s>尽管存在热力学第二定律，涉及到生命系统组织形式的问题仍有许多待解释的地方，这些被称为薛定谔悖论<ref name=":5" />。在《什么是生命？》第六章中，薛定谔谈到了他对负熵这个术语的使用:</s>

1944年，在诺贝尔物理学奖获得者埃尔温·薛定谔（Erwin Schrödinger）的著作——《什么是生命？》中认为，生命与热力学第二定律所规定的一般趋势相反，通常情况下，一个孤立系统的熵往往倾向于增加，但是生命可以依赖于负熵从而保持其熵量不变甚至减少<ref name=":4" />。<s>生命系统组织形式的问题与热力学第二定律之间的存在的矛盾被称为薛定谔悖论。在《什么是生命？》第六章中，薛定谔谈到了他对负熵这个术语的使用:</s>

薛定谔认为，这就是生命区别于其他物质组织形式的原因。在方向上，生命的动力学可能被认为与热力学第二定律的趋势相悖，但生命并不以任何方式与这个定律冲突或使之无效，因为熵只能增加或保持不变的原理只适用于绝热孤立的封闭系统，系统封闭意味着没有热量可以进入或离开，但是使生命产生的物理和化学过程不会在绝热孤立的条件下发生，即生命系统是开放系统。当一个系统可以与其环境交换热量或物质时，该系统的熵减完全符合热力学第二定律<ref name="Denbigh" />。

 

薛定谔认为，这就是生命区别于其他物质组织形式的原因。在这个方向上，生命的动力学可能被认为与热力学第二定律的趋势相悖，但生命并不以任何方式与这个定律冲突或使之无效，因为熵只能增加或保持不变的原理只适用于绝热孤立的封闭系统，系统封闭意味着没有热量可以进入或离开，但是使生命产生的物理和化学过程不会在绝热孤立的条件下发生，即生命系统是开放系统。当一个系统可以与其环境交换热量或物质时，该系统的熵减完全符合热力学第二定律<ref name="Denbigh" />。