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第1行： − 此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共8241，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。 − {{short description|English mathematician and computer scientist (1912–1954)}} − {{Redirect|Turing}} − {{pp-semi-indef}} − {{Use British English|date=June 2020}} − {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}} − {{Infobox scientist − | name = Alan Turing − | honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|OBE|FRS|size=100%}} − | image = Alan Turing Aged 16.jpg − | caption = Turing {{circa}} 1928 at age 16<!-- original source says simply: "AMT aged 16, head and shoulders" --> − | birth_name = Alan Mathison Turing − | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1912|6|23}} − | birth_place = [[Maida Vale]], London, England − | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1954|6|7|1912|6|23}} − | death_place = {{Nowrap|[[Wilmslow]], Cheshire, England}} − | resting_place = Ashes scattered in gardens of [[Woking Crematorium]] − | death_cause = Suicide (disputed) by [[cyanide poisoning]] − | field = {{Plainlist| − * [[Logic]] − * [[Mathematics]] − * [[Cryptanalysis]] − * [[Computer science]] − * [[Mathematical and theoretical biology]]<ref name=googlescholar>{{Google scholar id}}</ref> − }} − | work_institutions = {{Plainlist| − * [[University of Manchester]] − * [[Government Code and Cypher School]] − * [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] − }} − | education = [[Sherborne School]] − | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| − * [[University of Cambridge]] <!--[[King's College, Cambridge]] doesn't award degrees--> ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]]) − * [[Princeton University]] (PhD) − }} − | doctoral_advisor = [[Alonzo Church]]<ref name="mathgene">{{MathGenealogy|id=8014}}</ref> − | doctoral_students = [[Robin Gandy]],<ref name="mathgene"/><ref name=gandyphd>{{cite thesis|degree=PhD|title=On axiomatic systems in mathematics and theories in physics|first=Robin Oliver|last=Gandy|year=1953|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245090|id={{EThOS|uk.bl.ethos.590164}}|publisher=University of Cambridge|doi=10.17863/CAM.16125|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209152236/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245090|archive-date=9 December 2017|url-status=live}} {{free access}}</ref> [[Beatrice Worsley]]<ref name="bowen19">{{cite chapter| first=Jonathan P. |last=Bowen | author-link=Jonathan Bowen | chapter=The Impact of Alan Turing: Formal Methods and Beyond | editor-last1=Bowen | editor-first1=Jonathan P. | editor-last2=Liu | editor-first2=Zhiming | editor-link2=Zhiming Liu (computer scientist) | editor-last3=Zhang | editor-first3=Zili | title=Engineering Trustworthy Software Systems. SETSS 2018 | series=[[Lecture Notes in Computer Science]] | volume=11430 | pages=202–235 |year=2019 | publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer]] | location=Cham | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-17601-3_5 |isbn=978-3-030-17600-6 |s2cid=121295850 |url=http://researchopen.lsbu.ac.uk/3224/1/setss2018.pdf }}</ref> − | influences = [[Max Newman]]<ref>[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness|Grattan-Guinness, Ivor]], Chapter 40, ''Turing's mentor, Max Newman''. In {{cite book| author-link1 = Jack Copeland|last1 = Copeland | first1=B. Jack | author-link2=Jonathan Bowen | last2=Bowen | first2=Jonathan P. | author-link3=Robin Wilson (mathematician)| last3=Wilson | first3=Robin | last4=Sprevak | first4=Mark | title=The Turing Guide | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-19-874782-6|title-link = The Turing Guide }}</ref> − | thesis_title = Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals − | thesis_url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121023103503/https://webspace.princeton.edu/users/jedwards/Turing%20Centennial%202012/Mudd%20Archive%20files/12285_AC100_Turing_1938.pdf − | thesis_year = 1938 − | signature = Alan Turing signature.svg − | known_for = {{Plainlist| − * [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma]] − * [[Turing's proof]] − * [[Turing machine]] − * [[Turing test]] − * [[Unorganized machine|Unorganised machine]] − * [[Turing pattern]] − * [[Turing reduction]] − * "[[The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis]]" − }} − | prizes = [[Smith's Prize]] (1936) − | partner = [[Joan Clarke]]<br />(engaged in 1941; did not marry) − }} − − '''Alan Mathison Turing''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|OBE|FRS}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|tj|ʊər|ɪ|ŋ}}; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English [[mathematician]], [[computer scientist]], [[logic]]ian, [[cryptanalysis|cryptanalyst]], [[philosopher]], and [[mathematical and theoretical biology|theoretical biologist]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=The British Library |title=Who was Alan Turing? |access-date=29 July 2019 |url=https://www.bl.uk/people/alan-turing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723191531/https://www.bl.uk/people/alan-turing |archive-date=23 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=whoswho>{{Who's Who | author=Anon| surname = Turing | othernames = Alan Mathison | id = U243891 | year = 2017 | doi = 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U243891 | edition = online [[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Turing was highly influential in the development of [[theoretical computer science]], providing a formalisation of the concepts of [[algorithm]] and [[computation]] with the [[Turing machine]], which can be considered a model of a [[general-purpose computer]].<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal − | last1 = Newman | first1 = M.H.A. − | author-link = Max Newman − | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1955.0019 − | title = Alan Mathison Turing. 1912–1954 − | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] − | volume = 1 − | pages = 253–263 − | year = 1955 − | jstor = 769256 − | s2cid = 711366 − | doi-access = free − }}</ref><ref name=AFP/><ref>{{Harvnb|Sipser|2006|p=137}}</ref> Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and [[artificial intelligence]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Beavers|2013|p=481}}</ref> − − Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. − − 他是一位英国数学家、计算机科学家、逻辑学家、艾伦·图灵分析家、哲学家和理论生物学家。图灵在理论计算机科学的发展中具有很大的影响力，他用图灵机将算法和计算的概念形式化，这可以被认为是通用计算机的模型。图灵被广泛认为是理论计算机科学和人工智能之父。 − − Born in [[Maida Vale]], London, Turing was raised in [[southern England]]. He graduated at [[King's College, Cambridge]], with a degree in mathematics. Whilst he was a [[fellow]] at Cambridge, he published a proof demonstrating that some purely mathematical yes–no questions can never be answered by computation and defined a [[Turing machine]], and went on to prove the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines is [[Decision problem|undecidable]]. In 1938, he obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] from the [[Princeton University Department of Mathematics|Department of Mathematics]] at [[Princeton University]]. During the [[Second World War]], Turing worked for the [[Government Communications Headquarters#Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS)|Government Code and Cypher School]] (GC&CS) at [[Bletchley Park]], Britain's [[cryptanalysis|codebreaking]] centre that produced [[Ultra]] intelligence. For a time he led [[Hut 8]], the section that was responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here, he devised a number of techniques for speeding the breaking of German [[cipher]]s, including improvements to the pre-war Polish [[Bomba (cryptography)|bombe]] method, an [[electromechanics|electromechanical]] machine that could find settings for the [[Enigma machine]]. Turing played a crucial role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the [[Axis powers]] in many crucial engagements, including the [[Battle of the Atlantic]].<ref name="bbc-copeland">{{cite news|last=Copeland|first=Jack|author-link=Jack Copeland|date=18 June 2012|title=Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'|publisher=BBC News Technology|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18419691|url-status=live|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011045451/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18419691|archive-date=11 October 2014}}</ref><ref>A number of sources state that Winston Churchill said that Turing made the single biggest contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. However, both [[The Churchill Centre]] and Turing's biographer [[Andrew Hodges]] have stated they know of no documentary evidence to support this claim, nor of the date or context in which Churchill supposedly said it, and the Churchill Centre lists it among their Churchill 'Myths', see {{cite web|last=Schilling|first=Jonathan|date=8 January 2015|title=Churchill Said Turing Made the Single Biggest Contribution to Allied Victory|url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/myths/churchill-said-turing-made-the-single-biggest-contribution-to-allied-victory|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217170510/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/myths/churchill-said-turing-made-the-single-biggest-contribution-to-allied-victory|archive-date=17 February 2015|access-date=9 January 2015|publisher=The Churchill Centre: Myths}} and {{cite web|last=Hodges|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Hodges|title=Part 4: The Relay Race|url=http://www.turing.org.uk/book/update/part4.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120190931/http://www.turing.org.uk/book/update/part4.html|archive-date=20 January 2015|access-date=9 January 2015|publisher=Update to [[Alan Turing: The Enigma]]}} A [[BBC News]] profile piece that repeated the Churchill claim has subsequently been amended to say there is no evidence for it. See {{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Clare|date=11 September 2009|title=Profile: Alan Turing|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8250592.stm|url-status=live|access-date=17 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213095303/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18419691|archive-date=13 December 2017|quote=Update 13 February 2015}} Official war historian [[Harry Hinsley]] estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years but added the caveat that this did not account for the [[Manhattan Project|use of the atomic bomb]] and other eventualities.{{citation | last = Hinsley | first = Harry | author-link = Harry Hinsley | title = The Influence of ULTRA in the Second World War | origyear = 1993 | year = 1996 | url = http://www.cix.co.uk/~klockstone/hinsley.htm }} Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University</ref> − − Born in Maida Vale, London, Turing was raised in southern England. He graduated at King's College, Cambridge, with a degree in mathematics. Whilst he was a fellow at Cambridge, he published a proof demonstrating that some purely mathematical yes–no questions can never be answered by computation and defined a Turing machine, and went on to prove the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable. In 1938, he obtained his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton University. During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. For a time he led Hut 8, the section that was responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here, he devised a number of techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bombe method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Turing played a crucial role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Axis powers in many crucial engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic.A number of sources state that Winston Churchill said that Turing made the single biggest contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. However, both The Churchill Centre and Turing's biographer Andrew Hodges have stated they know of no documentary evidence to support this claim, nor of the date or context in which Churchill supposedly said it, and the Churchill Centre lists it among their Churchill 'Myths', see and A BBC News profile piece that repeated the Churchill claim has subsequently been amended to say there is no evidence for it. See Official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years but added the caveat that this did not account for the use of the atomic bomb and other eventualities. Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University − − 图灵出生于梅达韦尔，在英格兰南部长大。他毕业于剑桥大学国王学院，获得数学学位。当他还是剑桥大学的研究员时，他发表了一篇论证，证明了一些纯粹的数学上的是非问题永远不能用计算机来回答，并定义了一个图灵机，并继续证明图灵机的停机问题是不可判定的。1938年，他获得了普林斯顿大学数学系的博士学位。第二次世界大战期间，图灵在 Bletchley Park 的英国政府通讯总部情报局工作，这是英国产生超级情报的密码破译中心。有一段时间，他领导第八小屋，该小组负责德国海军密码分析。在这里，他设计了一系列加速破解德国密码的技术，包括改进战前的波兰轰炸机方法，这种机电式机器可以找到英格玛密码机的设置。图灵在破译截获的加密信息中扮演了关键角色，这些信息使得盟军在许多关键战役中击败轴心国，包括大西洋战役。一些消息来源称，温斯顿·丘吉尔称图灵为盟军在对抗纳粹德国的战争中取得胜利做出了最大贡献。然而，丘吉尔中心和图灵的传记作者安德鲁 · 霍奇斯都表示，他们不知道任何文件证据来支持这一说法，也不知道据说丘吉尔说这话的日期或背景，丘吉尔中心将其列为他们的丘吉尔神话之一。参见官方战争历史学家哈里 · 辛斯利的估计，这项工作将欧洲战争缩短了两年多，但是补充说明，这并没有考虑到原子弹的使用和其他不测事件。1993年10月19日星期二在剑桥大学演讲的文字稿 − − After the war, Turing worked at the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]], where he designed the [[Automatic Computing Engine]] (ACE), one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined [[Max Newman]]'s [[Computing Machine Laboratory]], at the [[Victoria University of Manchester]], where he helped develop the [[Manchester computers]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Leavitt|2007|pp=231–233}}</ref> and became interested in [[mathematical biology]]. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of [[morphogenesis]]<ref name="googlescholar" /> and predicted [[Chemical clock|oscillating]] [[chemical reaction]]s such as the [[Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction]], first observed in the 1960s. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised in his home country during his lifetime because much of his work was covered by the [[Official Secrets Act 1939|Official Secrets Act]].<ref>Olinick, M. (2021). Simply Turing. United States: Simply Charly, ch. 15.</ref> − − After the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory, at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised in his home country during his lifetime because much of his work was covered by the Official Secrets Act.Olinick, M. (2021). Simply Turing. United States: Simply Charly, ch. 15. − − 战后，图灵在国家物理实验室工作，在那里他设计了自动计算机引擎(ACE) ，这是储存程式计算机的第一个设计。1948年，图灵加入了曼彻斯特维多利亚大学马克斯 · 纽曼的计算机实验室，在那里他帮助开发了曼彻斯特计算机，并对数学生物学产生了兴趣。他写了一篇关于形态形成的化学基础的论文，并预言了一些振荡的化学反应，如1960年代首次观察到的 Belousov-Zhabotinsky 反应。尽管取得了这些成就，但在他有生之年，他在祖国从未得到充分认可，因为他的大部分工作都受到《官方保密法》的保护。奥林尼克，m。(2021)。简单的图灵。美国: 简称 Charly，ch。15. − − Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for [[Gross indecency|homosexual acts]]. He accepted [[chemical castration]] treatment, with [[Diethylstilbestrol|DES]], as an alternative to prison. Turing died in 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from [[cyanide poisoning]]. An inquest determined his death as a suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. − − Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts. He accepted chemical castration treatment, with DES, as an alternative to prison. Turing died in 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined his death as a suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. − − 图灵在1952年因同性恋行为被起诉。他接受了药物洗脱支架的化学阉割治疗，作为监狱的替代方案。图灵死于1954年，距他42岁生日还有16天，死于氰化物中毒。调查确定他的死因是自杀，但已知的证据也与意外中毒相符。 − − In 2009, following an [[Internet campaign]], British Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]] made an [[#Government apology and pardon support|official public apology]] on behalf of the British government for "the appalling way he was treated". [[Queen Elizabeth II]] granted Turing a posthumous pardon in 2013. The "[[Alan Turing law]]" is now an informal term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts.<ref name="BBC-pardon">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-37711518 |title='Alan Turing law': Thousands of gay men to be pardoned |date=20 October 2016 |access-date=20 October 2016 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020125029/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-37711518 |archive-date=20 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Turing has an [[Legacy of Alan Turing|extensive legacy]] with statues of him and [[List of things named after Alan Turing|many things named after him]], including an [[Turing Award|annual award]] for computer science innovations. He appears on the current [[Bank of England £50 note]], which was released to coincide with his birthday. A [[Icons: The Greatest Person of the 20th Century|2019 BBC series]], as voted by the audience, named him the greatest person of the 20th century. − {{TOC limit|3}} − − In 2009, following an Internet campaign, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British government for "the appalling way he was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted Turing a posthumous pardon in 2013. The "Alan Turing law" is now an informal term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. Turing has an extensive legacy with statues of him and many things named after him, including an annual award for computer science innovations. He appears on the current Bank of England £50 note, which was released to coincide with his birthday. A 2019 BBC series, as voted by the audience, named him the greatest person of the 20th century. − − − 2009年，在一场网络运动之后，英国首相戈登 · 布朗代表英国政府就“他受到的骇人听闻的对待”发表了正式的公开道歉。伊丽莎白二世在2013年给予图灵死后赦免。“阿兰 · 图灵法”现在是英国2017年一项法律的非正式术语，该法律追溯性地赦免了那些根据历史法律被警告或定罪的同性恋行为。图灵有着广泛的遗产，他的雕像和许多以他的名字命名的东西，包括一个年度计算机科学创新奖。他出现在当前英格兰银行发行的50英镑纸币上，这张纸币是在他生日那天发行的。2019年 BBC 的一个系列节目，经过观众投票，将他评为20世纪最伟大的人物。 − − ==Early life and education== − − ==Early life and education== − − = 早年生活与教育 = − − ===Family=== − Turing was born in [[Maida Vale]], London,<ref name=whoswho/> while his father, Julius Mathison Turing (1873–1947), was on leave from his position with the [[Indian Civil Service]] (ICS) at [[Chatrapur]], then in the [[Madras Presidency]] and presently in [[Odisha]] state, in India.<ref name = "Hodges1983P5">{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/scrapbook/early.html |title=The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook |publisher=[[Alan Turing: The Enigma]] |access-date=2 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6BOrKl1DB?url=http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/scrapbook/early.html |archive-date=14 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Turing's father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a [[baronet]]. Turing's mother, Julius's wife, was Ethel Sara Turing ({{nee|Stoney}}; 1881–1976),<ref name=whoswho/> daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the [[Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway|Madras Railways]]. The Stoneys were a [[Protestantism in Ireland|Protestant]] [[Anglo-Irish]] [[gentry]] family from both [[County Tipperary]] and [[County Longford]], while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in [[County Clare]].<ref>Phil Maguire, "An Irishman's Diary", p. 5. ''[[The Irish Times]]'', 23 June 2012.</ref> − − Turing was born in Maida Vale, London, while his father, Julius Mathison Turing (1873–1947), was on leave from his position with the Indian Civil Service (ICS) at Chatrapur, then in the Madras Presidency and presently in Odisha state, in India. Turing's father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet. Turing's mother, Julius's wife, was Ethel Sara Turing (; 1881–1976), daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways. The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford, while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare.Phil Maguire, "An Irishman's Diary", p. 5. The Irish Times, 23 June 2012. − − = = 家庭 = = 图灵出生于梅达韦尔，而他的父亲朱利叶斯 · 马西森 · 图灵(1873-1947)正在杰德拉布尔的印度公务员部门休假，然后在印度马德拉斯省服役，目前在 Odisha。图灵的父亲是牧师的儿子。约翰 · 罗伯特 · 图灵，来自一个苏格兰商人家庭，家庭的基地在荷兰，包括一个准男爵。图灵的母亲，朱利叶斯的妻子，埃塞尔 · 萨拉 · 图灵(Ethel Sara Turing; 1881-1976) ，是马德拉斯铁路公司总工程师爱德华 · 沃勒 · 斯托尼(Edward Waller Stoney)的女儿。斯通伊斯是一个来自蒂珀雷里郡和 County Longford 的盎格鲁-爱尔兰新教贵族家庭，而埃塞尔本人在克莱尔郡度过了她童年的大部分时光。菲尔 · 马奎尔，《一个爱尔兰人的日记》 ，第5页。爱尔兰时报，2012年6月23日。 − − Julius's work with the ICS brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the [[Bengal Army]]. However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain, so they moved to [[Maida Vale]],<ref name="englishheritaget">{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.001002006005/chooseLetter/T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903150218/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.001002006005/chooseLetter/T |archive-date=3 September 2009 |title=London Blue Plaques |access-date=10 February 2007 |work=English Heritage |url-status=live }}</ref> London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a [[blue plaque]] on the outside of the house of his birth,<ref>[http://blogs.nature.com/london/2011/03/16/the-scientific-tourist-in-london-17-alan-turings-birth-place The Scientific Tourist In London: #17 Alan Turing's Birth Place] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054045/http://blogs.nature.com/london/2011/03/16/the-scientific-tourist-in-london-17-alan-turings-birth-place |date=21 September 2013 }}, ''Nature''. London Blog</ref><ref>{{openplaque|381}}</ref> later the [[Colonnade Hotel (London)|Colonnade Hotel]].<ref name="Hodges1983P5"/><ref name="turingorguk">{{cite web | url=http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/scrapbook/memorial.html | title=The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook | access-date=26 September 2006 | archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110720214124/http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/scrapbook/memorial.html | archive-date=20 July 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> Turing had an elder brother, John (the father of [[Dermot Turing|Sir John Dermot Turing]], 12th Baronet of the [[Turing baronets]]).<ref>[https://bletchleypark.org.uk/about-us/bletchley-park-trustees/sir-john-dermot-turing Sir John Dermot Turing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018191443/https://bletchleypark.org.uk/about-us/bletchley-park-trustees/sir-john-dermot-turing |date=18 October 2017 }} on the Bletchley Park website.</ref> − − Julius's work with the ICS brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army. However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain, so they moved to Maida Vale, London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the house of his birth,The Scientific Tourist In London: #17 Alan Turing's Birth Place , Nature. London Blog later the Colonnade Hotel. Turing had an elder brother, John (the father of Sir John Dermot Turing, 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets).Sir John Dermot Turing on the Bletchley Park website. − − 朱利叶斯在 ICS 的工作将他的家庭带到了英属印度，他的祖父曾是孟加拉军队的一名将军。然而，朱利叶斯和埃塞尔都希望他们的孩子在英国长大，所以他们搬到了梅达韦尔，阿兰图灵于1912年6月23日在那里出生，正如他出生房子外面的蓝色牌匾所记录的那样，科学游客在伦敦: 17英镑阿兰图灵的出生地，自然。伦敦博客后来的 Colonnade Hotel。图灵有一个哥哥约翰(约翰 · 德莫特 · 图灵爵士的父亲，图灵从男爵12世)。约翰 · 德莫特 · 图灵爵士在 Bletchley Park 网站上。 − − Turing's father's civil service commission was still active and during Turing's childhood years, his parents travelled between [[Hastings]] in the United Kingdom<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=6}}</ref> and India, leaving their two sons to stay with a retired [[British Army|Army]] couple. At Hastings, Turing stayed at [[Baston Lodge]], Upper Maze Hill, [[St Leonards-on-Sea]], now marked with a blue plaque.<ref name="Hastings & St. Leonards Observer - 29 June 2012 - Plaque unveiled at Turing's home in St Leonards">{{cite news|url=http://www.hastingsobserver.co.uk/news/plaque-unveiled-at-turing-s-home-in-st-leonards-1-4003535|title=Plaque unveiled at Turing's home in St Leonards|date=29 June 2012|work=[[Hastings & St. Leonards Observer]]|access-date=3 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912121655/http://www.hastingsobserver.co.uk/news/plaque-unveiled-at-turing-s-home-in-st-leonards-1-4003535|archive-date=12 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 2012, the centenary of Turing's birth.<ref name="BBC News - 25 June 2012 - St Leonards plaque marks Alan Turing's early years">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-sussex-18580826|title=St Leonards plaque marks Alan Turing's early years|date=25 June 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=3 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203074933/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-sussex-18580826|archive-date=3 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> − − Turing's father's civil service commission was still active and during Turing's childhood years, his parents travelled between Hastings in the United Kingdom and India, leaving their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple. At Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, now marked with a blue plaque. The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 2012, the centenary of Turing's birth. − − 图灵父亲的公务员委员会仍然活跃，在图灵的童年时代，他的父母在英国和印度的黑斯廷斯之间旅行，留下他们的两个儿子和一对退休的军人夫妇住在一起。在黑斯廷斯，图灵住在 Baston Lodge，上梅兹山，圣莱昂纳德海上，现在有一块蓝色的牌匾。2012年6月23日，也就是图灵百年诞辰纪念日，这块匾揭开了面纱。 − − Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently.<ref name=toolbox>{{cite web |title=Alan Turing – Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1 |first=G. James |last=Jones |date=11 December 2001 |url=http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3 |access-date=27 July 2007 |work=System Toolbox |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803163318/http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3 |archive-date=3 August 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> His parents purchased a house in [[Guildford]] in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guildford-dragon.com/2012/11/29/founder-of-computer-science-alan-turings-guildford-stargazing/ |title=Guildford Dragon NEWS |publisher=The Guildford Dragon |date=29 November 2012 |access-date=31 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019062927/http://www.guildford-dragon.com/2012/11/29/founder-of-computer-science-alan-turings-guildford-stargazing/ |archive-date=19 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> − − Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently. His parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque. − − 在他很小的时候，图灵就表现出了天才的迹象，后来他突出地展现了这一点。他的父母1927年在吉尔福德买了一所房子，图灵在学校放假期间住在那里。这个位置还有一块蓝色的牌匾。 − − ===School=== − Turing's parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a primary school at 20 Charles Road, [[St Leonards-on-Sea]], from the age of six to nine. The headmistress recognised his talent, noting that she has "...had clever boys and hardworking boys, but Alan is a genius."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cawthorne|first=Nigel|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890938716|title=Alan Turing : the enigma man|date=2014|isbn=978-1-78404-535-7|location=London|pages=18|oclc=890938716}}</ref> − − Turing's parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a primary school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea, from the age of six to nine. The headmistress recognised his talent, noting that she has "...had clever boys and hardworking boys, but Alan is a genius." − − = = 学校 = = 图灵的父母把他送进了圣迈克尔学校，这是一所位于海上圣莱昂纳德查尔斯路20号的小学，从6岁到9岁不等。女校长认出了他的才能，并说她“ ... 有聪明的男孩和勤奋的男孩，但艾伦是一个天才。” − − Between January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of [[Frant]] in Sussex (now [[East Sussex]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/TURING-Alan-Mathison.pdf|title=Alan Turing Archive – Sherborne School (ARCHON CODE: GB1949)|author=Alan Mathison|work=Sherborne School, Dorset|date=April 2016|access-date=5 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226093015/http://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/TURING-Alan-Mathison.pdf|archive-date=26 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to [[Sherborne School]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2016|title=Alan Turing OBE, PhD, FRS (1912–1954)|url=https://oldshirburnian.org.uk/alan-turing/|access-date=10 October 2020|website=The Old Shirburnian Society|language=en-GB}}</ref> a boarding independent school in the market town of [[Sherborne]] in Dorset, where he boarded at Westcott House. The first day of term coincided with the [[1926 United Kingdom general strike|1926 General Strike]], in Britain, but Turing was so determined to attend, that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied {{convert|60|mi|km}} from [[Southampton]] to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn.<ref name=metamagical>{{Cite book|title=Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o8jzWF7rD6oC&pg=PA484 484]|first=Douglas R. |last=Hofstadter |year=1985 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-04566-2 |oclc=230812136}}</ref> − − Between January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of Frant in Sussex (now East Sussex). In 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to Sherborne School, a boarding independent school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset, where he boarded at Westcott House. The first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike, in Britain, but Turing was so determined to attend, that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied from Southampton to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn. − − 1922年1月至1926年间，图灵在哈泽尔赫斯特预科学校接受教育，这是苏塞克斯郡(现为东苏塞克斯郡)弗兰特的一所独立学校。1926年，13岁的他进入了位于多塞特舍伯恩市镇的一所寄宿制独立学校---- 谢伯恩学校，在那里他在 Westcott House 寄宿。学期的第一天正好赶上1926年英国的总罢工，但是图灵决心要参加，他独自骑着自行车从南安普顿到了舍伯恩，在一家客栈过夜。 − − Turing's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the [[classics]]. His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming ''educated''. If he is to be solely a ''Scientific Specialist'', he is wasting his time at a public school".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=26}}</ref> Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary [[calculus]]. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered [[Albert Einstein]]'s work; not only did he grasp it, but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning of [[Newton's laws of motion]] from a text in which this was never made explicit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=34}}</ref> − − Turing's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming educated. If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school". Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert Einstein's work; not only did he grasp it, but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit. − − 图灵对数学和科学的天生倾向并没有赢得舍伯恩大学一些教师的尊重，他们对教育的定义更多地强调古典学。他的校长在给父母的信中写道: “我希望他不要两头落空。如果他想留在公立学校，他必须以受教育为目标。如果他只想成为一名科学专家，那他就是在公立学校里浪费时间。”。尽管如此，图灵在他热爱的研究中继续表现出非凡的能力，在1927年，他甚至没有学过初等微积分就解决了高级问题。1928年，16岁的图灵遇到了阿尔伯特 · 爱因斯坦的工作; 他不仅掌握了它，而且有可能他设法从一篇从未明确阐述过的文章中推断出爱因斯坦对牛顿运动定律的质疑。 − − ===Christopher Morcom=== − At Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Collan Morcom (13 July 1911 – 13 February 1930),<ref>[https://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Obituary-for-Christopher-Morcom-The-Shirburnian-March-1930.pdf ''The Shirburnian'']</ref> who has been described as Turing's "first love". Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications of [[bovine tuberculosis]], contracted after drinking infected cow's milk some years previously.<ref name=NYReviewBooks>{{cite web|author=Caryl, Christian|title=Poor Imitation of Alan Turing|url=http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2014/dec/19/poor-imitation-alan-turing/|newspaper=[[New York Review of Books]]|date=19 December 2014|access-date=9 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107010418/http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2014/dec/19/poor-imitation-alan-turing/|archive-date=7 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Rachel Hassall, [http://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/The-Sherborne-Formula-Vivat-2012-2013-optimised.pdf 'The Sherborne Formula: The Making of Alan Turing'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415082353/http://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/The-Sherborne-Formula-Vivat-2012-2013-optimised.pdf |date=15 April 2014 }} 'Vivat!' 2012/13</ref><ref name=teuscher>{{Cite book|editor-last=Teuscher |editor-first=Christof|editor-link=Christof Teuscher |title=Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker |year=2004 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer-Verlag]] |isbn=978-3-540-20020-8 |oclc=53434737 }}</ref> − − At Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Collan Morcom (13 July 1911 – 13 February 1930),The Shirburnian who has been described as Turing's "first love". Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after drinking infected cow's milk some years previously.Rachel Hassall, 'The Sherborne Formula: The Making of Alan Turing' 'Vivat!' 2012/13 − − = = Christopher Morcom = = = 在舍伯恩，图灵与同学 Christopher Collan Morcom (1911年7月13日 -1930年2月13日)建立了深厚的友谊，这位舍布尔人被称为图灵的“初恋”。他们的关系为图灵未来的努力提供了灵感，但由于1930年2月莫尔科姆死于多年前因饮用受感染的牛奶而感染的牛结核病并发症，这段关系被迫中断。雷切尔 · 哈索尔(Rachel Hassall) ，《舍伯恩公式: 阿兰 · 图灵的诞生》(The Sherborne Formula: The Making of Alan Turing)《维瓦特! 》2012/13 − − The event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to Morcom's mother, Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Turing wrote:{{blockquote|I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is what he would like me to do.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=61}}</ref>}} − − The event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to Morcom's mother, Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Turing wrote: − − 这件事给图灵带来了巨大的悲痛。他与莫科姆一起在科学和数学方面付出了更多的努力，以此来应对自己的悲痛。图灵在写给莫科姆母亲弗朗西丝 · 伊泽贝尔 · 莫科姆(弗朗西丝 · 斯旺饰)的信中写道: − − Turing's relationship with Morcom's mother continued long after Morcom's death, with her sending gifts to Turing, and him sending letters, typically on Morcom's birthday.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=[https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg/page/87 87] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-691-15564-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg|url-access=registration }}</ref> A day before the third anniversary of Morcom's death (13 February 1933), he wrote to Mrs. Morcom: {{blockquote|I expect you will be thinking of Chris when this reaches you. I shall too, and this letter is just to tell you that I shall be thinking of Chris and of you tomorrow. I am sure that he is as happy now as he was when he was here. Your affectionate Alan.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=[https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg/page/90 90] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-691-15564-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg|url-access=registration }}</ref>}} − − Turing's relationship with Morcom's mother continued long after Morcom's death, with her sending gifts to Turing, and him sending letters, typically on Morcom's birthday. A day before the third anniversary of Morcom's death (13 February 1933), he wrote to Mrs. Morcom: − − 图灵和莫科姆的母亲的关系在莫科姆去世很久之后依然存在，她给图灵寄去了礼物，他也给莫科姆写了信，通常是在莫科姆的生日那天。在莫尔科姆逝世三周年的前一天(1933年2月13日) ，他写信给莫尔科姆夫人: − − Some have speculated that Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's [[atheism]] and [[materialism]].<ref>Paul Gray, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html Alan Turing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119181237/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html |date=19 January 2011 }} Time Magazine's Most Important People of the Century, p. 2</ref> Apparently, at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's mother, Turing wrote: {{blockquote|Personally, I believe that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and body I consider that the body can hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps immediately.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=82–83}}</ref><ref>[https://oldshirburnian.org.uk/alan-turing-and-the-nature-of-spirit/ The Old Shirburnian Society]</ref>}} − − Some have speculated that Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's atheism and materialism.Paul Gray, Alan Turing Time Magazine's Most Important People of the Century, p. 2 Apparently, at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's mother, Turing wrote: − − 有人推测，莫科姆的死是图灵无神论和唯物主义的原因。保罗 · 格雷，阿兰 · 图灵时代杂志的《世纪最重要的人物》 ，第2页显然，在他生命的这个阶段，他仍然相信诸如精神、独立于肉体和生存于死亡的概念。在后来写给莫科姆母亲的一封信中，图灵写道: − − ===University and work on computability=== − After Sherborne, Turing studied as an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934 at [[King's College, Cambridge]],<ref name=whoswho/> where he was awarded first-class honours in mathematics. In 1935, at the age of 22, he was elected a [[Fellow]] of King's College on the strength of a dissertation in which he proved the [[central limit theorem]].<ref>See Section 3 of John Aldrich, "England and Continental Probability in the Inter-War Years", Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique, vol. 5/2 [http://www.jehps.net/decembre2009.html Decembre 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421105727/http://www.jehps.net/decembre2009.html |date=21 April 2018 }} Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique</ref> Unknown to the committee, the theorem had already been proven, in 1922, by [[Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=88, 94}}</ref> − − After Sherborne, Turing studied as an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934 at King's College, Cambridge, where he was awarded first-class honours in mathematics. In 1935, at the age of 22, he was elected a Fellow of King's College on the strength of a dissertation in which he proved the central limit theorem.See Section 3 of John Aldrich, "England and Continental Probability in the Inter-War Years", Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique, vol. 5/2 Decembre 2009 Journal Electronique d'Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique Unknown to the committee, the theorem had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg. − − 舍伯恩毕业后，图灵于1931年至1934年在剑桥大学国王学院读本科，在那里他获得了数学一等荣誉。1935年，22岁的他凭借一篇论文被选为国王学院的研究员，在这篇论文中，他证明了中心极限定理。参见约翰 · 奥尔德里奇的《两次世界大战之间的英格兰和大陆概率》第3节，《电子杂志与概率与统计学组织》 ，第一卷。2009年12月5日《电子杂志》 : 委员会不知道的概率和统计数据，这个定理已经在1922年被 Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg 证明了。 − − In 1936, Turing published his paper "[[On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Turing|1937}}</ref> It was published in the ''Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society'' journal in two parts, the first on 30 November and the second on 23 December.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlsJuSj2OkEC&pg=PA211 |page=211 |title=Computability: Turing, Gödel, Church, and Beyond |author1=B. Jack Copeland |author2=Carl J. Posy |author3=Oron Shagrir |publisher=MIT Press |year=2013|isbn=978-0-262-01899-9 }}</ref> In this paper, Turing reformulated [[Kurt Gödel]]'s 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as [[Turing machine]]s. The ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]]'' (decision problem) was originally posed by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]] in 1928. Turing proved that his "universal computing machine" would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an [[algorithm]]. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the ''decision problem'' by first showing that the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines is [[Decision problem|undecidable]]: it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt. This paper has been called "easily the most influential math paper in history".<ref>{{cite book |page=15 |title=Mathematics and Computation |author=Avi Wigderson |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019|isbn=978-0-691-18913-0 }}</ref> − − In 1936, Turing published his paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". It was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society journal in two parts, the first on 30 November and the second on 23 December. In this paper, Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing proved that his "universal computing machine" would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt. This paper has been called "easily the most influential math paper in history". − − 1936年，图灵发表了他的论文《论可计算数字，以及对可判定性的应用》。它分两部分发表在《伦敦数学学会学报》上，第一部分发表在11月30日，第二部分发表在12月23日。在本文中，图灵重新阐述了库尔特 · 哥德尔1931年关于证明和计算极限的结果，用后来被称为图灵机的形式化和简单的假设设备取代了哥德尔通用的基于算术的形式语言。可判定性问题最初是由德国数学家 David Hilbert 在1928年提出的。图灵证明了他的“通用计算机器”能够执行任何可以想象的数学计算，如果它可以表示为一种算法。他首先证明图灵机的停机问题是不可判定的: 从算法上决定图灵机是否会停机是不可能的。这篇论文被称为“历史上最有影响力的数学论文”。 − − [[File:20130808 Kings College Front Court Fountain Crop 03.jpg|thumb|right|[[King's College, Cambridge]], where Turing was an undergraduate in 1931 and became a Fellow in 1935. The computer room is named after him.]] − Although [[Turing's proof]] was published shortly after [[Alonzo Church]]'s equivalent proof using his [[lambda calculus]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Church|1936}}</ref> Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grime|first1=James|title=What Did Turing Do for Us?|url=https://nrich.maths.org/8050|website=[[NRICH]]|publisher=[[University of Cambridge]]|access-date=28 February 2016|date=February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304175703/http://nrich.maths.org/8050|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> It also included a notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a [[universal Turing machine]]), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the [[Church–Turing thesis]], Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. [[John von Neumann]] acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper.<ref>"von Neumann ... firmly emphasised to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others." Letter by [[Stanley Frankel]] to [[Brian Randell]], 1972, quoted in [[Jack Copeland]] (2004) ''The Essential Turing'', p. 22.</ref> To this day, Turing machines are a central object of study in [[theory of computation]]. − − − Although Turing's proof was published shortly after Alonzo Church's equivalent proof using his lambda calculus, Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's. It also included a notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the Church–Turing thesis, Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. John von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper."von Neumann ... firmly emphasised to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others." Letter by Stanley Frankel to Brian Randell, 1972, quoted in Jack Copeland (2004) The Essential Turing, p. 22. To this day, Turing machines are a central object of study in theory of computation. − − 尽管图灵的证明是在阿隆索 · 丘奇用他的 λ 微积分得到等价证明后不久发表的，但是图灵的方法比丘奇的方法更容易理解和直观。它还包含了一个通用机器的概念(现在被称为通用图灵机) ，其理念是这样一个机器可以执行任何其他计算机器的任务(实际上就像 Church 的 lambda 演算一样)。根据丘奇-图灵论文，图灵机和 lambda 微积分能够计算任何可计算的东西。约翰·冯·诺伊曼承认现代计算机的核心概念应归功于图灵的论文。“冯 · 诺依曼... ... 坚定地向我和其他人强调，基本概念应归功于图灵ーー这是巴贝奇、洛夫莱斯和其他人所没有预料到的。”斯坦利 · 弗兰克尔给布莱恩 · 兰德尔的信，1972年，引自杰克 · 科普兰(2004)《本质图灵》 ，第22页。直到今天，图灵机仍然是计算理论的中心研究对象。 − − From September 1936 to July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at [[Princeton University]],<ref name="bowen19" /> in the second year as a [[Jane Eliza Procter Fellowship|Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow]]. In addition to his purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical [[binary multiplier]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=138}}</ref> In June 1938, he obtained his PhD from the [[Princeton University Department of Mathematics|Department of Mathematics]] at Princeton;<ref>{{Cite journal − | last1 = Turing | first1 = A.M. − | author-link = Alan Turing − | title = Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals − | doi = 10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161 − | journal = Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society − | pages = 161–228 − | year = 1939 − | volume=s2-45 − | hdl = 21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3 − | hdl-access = free − }}</ref> his dissertation, ''[[Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals]]'',<ref name="turingphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Alan|last=Turing |title=Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals|publisher=Princeton University |year=1938 |doi=10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161|author-link=Alan Turing|id={{ProQuest|301792588}}|hdl=21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Turing | first = A.M. | author-link = Alan Turing | title = Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals | year = 1938 | url = https://webspace.princeton.edu/users/jedwards/Turing%20Centennial%202012/Mudd%20Archive%20files/12285_AC100_Turing_1938.pdf | access-date = 4 February 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121023103503/https://webspace.princeton.edu/users/jedwards/Turing%20Centennial%202012/Mudd%20Archive%20files/12285_AC100_Turing_1938.pdf | archive-date = 23 October 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref> introduced the concept of [[ordinal logic]] and the notion of [[Turing reduction|relative computing]], in which Turing machines are augmented with so-called [[oracle machine|oracles]], allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to hire him as his [[Postdoctoral researcher|postdoctoral assistant]], but he went back to the United Kingdom.<ref>''John Von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More'', Norman MacRae, 1999, American Mathematical Society, Chapter 8</ref> − − From September 1936 to July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University, in the second year as a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow. In addition to his purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier. In June 1938, he obtained his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton; his dissertation, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals, introduced the concept of ordinal logic and the notion of relative computing, in which Turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles, allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to hire him as his postdoctoral assistant, but he went back to the United Kingdom.John Von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More, Norman MacRae, 1999, American Mathematical Society, Chapter 8 − − 从1936年9月到1938年7月，图灵大部分时间在普林斯顿大学的教堂学习，第二年成为 Jane Eliza Procter 访问学者。除了纯粹的数学工作外，他还研究了密码学，并建造了一台电子机械乘法器的四个阶段中的三个阶段。1938年6月，他获得了普林斯顿大学数学系的博士学位; 他的博士论文，基于序数的逻辑系统，引入了序数逻辑的概念和相对计算的概念，在这个概念中，图灵机被所谓的神谕加强，使得对图灵机无法解决的问题的研究成为可能。约翰·冯·诺伊曼想聘请他做博士后助理，但他回到了英国。约翰·冯·诺伊曼: 现代计算机、博弈论、核威慑及其他科学天才，Norman MacRae，1999，American Mathematical Society，Chapter 8 − − ==Career and research== − When Turing returned to Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] about the [[foundations of mathematics]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=152}}</ref> The lectures have been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other students, from students' notes.<ref>[[Cora Diamond]] (ed.), ''Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics'', University of Chicago Press, 1976</ref> Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending [[Philosophy of mathematics#Formalism|formalism]] and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths, but rather invents them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=153–154}}</ref> − − When Turing returned to Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics. The lectures have been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other students, from students' notes.Cora Diamond (ed.), Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics, University of Chicago Press, 1976 Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths, but rather invents them. − − 当图灵回到剑桥后，他参加了路德维希·维特根斯坦1939年关于数学基础的讲座。这些讲座都是逐字逐句重建的，包括图灵和其他学生的感叹词，以及学生的笔记。图灵和维特根斯坦在1976年发表的《维特根斯坦关于数学基础的演讲》一书中对此提出了异议，图灵为形式主义辩护，维特根斯坦则提出了他的观点，即数学不是发现任何绝对真理，而是发明它们。 − − ===Cryptanalysis=== − During the Second World War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at [[Bletchley Park]]. The historian and wartime codebreaker [[Asa Briggs]] has said, "You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that genius."<ref>{{Cite AV media | last = Briggs | first = Asa | author-link = Asa Briggs | title = Britain's Greatest Codebreaker | type = TV broadcast | publisher = [[Channel 4|UK Channel 4]] | date = 21 November 2011}}</ref> − − During the Second World War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park. The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, "You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that genius." − − 第二次世界大战期间，图灵是在 Bletchley Park 破解德国密码的主要参与者。历史学家、战时密码破译者阿萨•布里格斯(Asa Briggs)曾说过: “你需要杰出的人才，你需要布莱奇利的天才，而图灵就是这种天才。” − − From September 1938, Turing worked part-time with the [[Government Code and Cypher School]] (GC&CS), the British codebreaking organisation. He concentrated on [[cryptanalysis of the Enigma|cryptanalysis of the Enigma cipher machine]] used by [[Nazi Germany]], together with [[Dilly Knox]], a senior GC&CS codebreaker.<ref>{{Cite book | author-link = Jack Copeland | last = Copeland | first = Jack | chapter = Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age | page = 352 | title = Action This Day | publisher = Bantam | date = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-593-04910-5 | editor-first1 = Michael | editor-last1 = Smith | editor-first2 = Ralph | editor-last2 = Erskine }}</ref> Soon after the July 1939 meeting near [[Warsaw]] at which the [[Polish Cipher Bureau]] gave the British and French details of the wiring of [[Enigma rotor details|Enigma machine's rotors]] and their method of decrypting [[Enigma machine]]'s messages, Turing and Knox developed a broader solution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2004a|p=217}}</ref> The Polish method relied on an insecure [[Cryptanalysis#Indicator|indicator]] procedure that the Germans were likely to change, which they in fact did in May 1940. Turing's approach was more general, using [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma#Crib-based decryption|crib-based decryption]] for which he produced the functional specification of the [[bombe]] (an improvement on the Polish [[Bomba (cryptography)|Bomba]]).<ref>{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Liat |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-06/18/turing-contributions?page=all |title=Turing's achievements: codebreaking, AI and the birth of computer science (Wired UK) |work=Wired |date=18 June 2012 |access-date=31 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102122933/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-06/18/turing-contributions?page=all |archive-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> − − From September 1938, Turing worked part-time with the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), the British codebreaking organisation. He concentrated on cryptanalysis of the Enigma cipher machine used by Nazi Germany, together with Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS codebreaker. Soon after the July 1939 meeting near Warsaw at which the Polish Cipher Bureau gave the British and French details of the wiring of Enigma machine's rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma machine's messages, Turing and Knox developed a broader solution. The Polish method relied on an insecure indicator procedure that the Germans were likely to change, which they in fact did in May 1940. Turing's approach was more general, using crib-based decryption for which he produced the functional specification of the bombe (an improvement on the Polish Bomba). − − 从1938年9月开始，图灵在英国破译组织---- 英国政府通讯总部破译协会做兼职工作。他和资深 gc & cs 密码破译员 Dilly Knox 一起，专注于对纳粹德国使用的恩尼格玛密码机的密码分析。1939年7月在华沙附近的会议上，波兰密码局向英国和法国提供了关于恩尼格玛密码机转子的线路和解密密码机信息的方法的细节，不久之后，图灵和诺克斯开发了一个更广泛的解决方案。波兰的方法依赖于一种不安全的指示程序，德国人可能会改变这种程序，事实上他们在1940年5月就已经改变了。图灵的方法更为普遍，他使用了基于抄袭的解密方法，从而产生了炸弹的规格化(相对于波兰炸弹的改进)。 − − [[File:Turing flat.jpg|thumb|right|Two cottages in the stable yard at [[Bletchley Park]]. Turing worked here in 1939 and 1940, before moving to [[Hut 8]].]] − − On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS.<ref name=Copeland2006p378>Copeland, 2006 p. 378.</ref> Like all others who came to Bletchley, he was required to sign the [[Official Secrets Act 1939|Official Secrets Act]], in which he agreed not to disclose anything about his work at Bletchley, with severe legal penalties for violating the Act.<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |last=Collins |first=Jeremy |title=Alan Turing and the Hidden Heroes of Bletchley Park: A Conversation with Sir John Dermot Turing |date=24 June 2020 |website=nationalww2museum.org |location=New Orleans |publisher=The National WWII Museum |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/alan-turing-betchley-park |access-date=24 August 2021}}</ref> − − On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS.Copeland, 2006 p. 378. Like all others who came to Bletchley, he was required to sign the Official Secrets Act, in which he agreed not to disclose anything about his work at Bletchley, with severe legal penalties for violating the Act. − − 1939年9月4日，也就是英国对德国宣战的第二天，图灵向 Bletchley Park 报告了战时的 gc & cs 基地。2006 p. 378.像所有其他来到布莱奇利的人一样，他被要求签署《官方保密法案》(Official Secrets Act) ，在该法案中，他同意不披露任何有关他在布莱奇利工作的信息，违反该法案将受到严厉的法律制裁。 − − Specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy; developing a statistical procedure dubbed ''[[Banburismus]]'' for making much more efficient use of the bombes; developing a procedure dubbed ''[[Turingery]]'' for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (''Tunny'') cipher machine and, towards the end of the war, the development of a portable [[secure voice]] scrambler at [[Her Majesty's Government Communications Centre|Hanslope Park]] that was codenamed ''Delilah''. − − Specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy; developing a statistical procedure dubbed Banburismus for making much more efficient use of the bombes; developing a procedure dubbed Turingery for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (Tunny) cipher machine and, towards the end of the war, the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was codenamed Delilah. − − 指定炸弹是图灵在战争期间取得的五大密码分析进展中的第一个。其他的是: 推导德国海军使用的指示程序; 开发一个统计程序称为 Banburismus，以便更有效地利用炸弹; 开发一个程序称为 Turingery，用于计算出 Lorenz SZ 40/42(Tunny)密码机车轮的凸轮设置; 战争快结束时，在 Hanslope Park 开发了一个代号为 Delilah 的便携式安全语音扰码器。 − − By using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject. He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled ''The Applications of Probability to Cryptography''<ref>{{cite web | last = Turing | first = Alan | year = c. 1941 | title = The Applications of Probability to Cryptography | id = The National Archives (United Kingdom): HW 25/37 | url = http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11510465 | access-date = 25 March 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150407234050/http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11510465 | archive-date = 7 April 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> and ''Paper on Statistics of Repetitions'',<ref>{{cite web | last = Turing | first = Alan | year = c. 1941 | title = Paper on Statistics of Repetitions | id = The National Archives (United Kingdom): HW 25/38 | url = http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11510466 | access-date = 25 March 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150408013845/http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11510466 | archive-date = 8 April 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor [[Government Communications Headquarters|GCHQ]] that they were not released to the [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|UK National Archives]] until April 2012, shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, "who identified himself only as Richard," said at the time that the fact that the contents had been restricted under the Official Secrets Act for some 70 years demonstrated their importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis:<ref name=bbcrichard>{{cite news |last=Vallance |first=Chris |title=Alan Turing papers on code breaking released by GCHQ |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17771962 |access-date=20 April 2012 |work=BBC News |date=19 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004192554/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17771962 |archive-date=4 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{blockquote|text=[He] said the fact that the contents had been restricted "shows what a tremendous importance it has in the foundations of our subject". ... The papers detailed using "mathematical analysis to try and determine which are the more likely settings so that they can be tried as quickly as possible." ... Richard said that GCHQ had now "squeezed the juice" out of the two papers and was "happy for them to be released into the public domain".}} − − By using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject. He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled The Applications of Probability to Cryptography and Paper on Statistics of Repetitions, which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012, shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, "who identified himself only as Richard," said at the time that the fact that the contents had been restricted under the Official Secrets Act for some 70 years demonstrated their importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis: − − 通过使用统计技术来优化破译过程中不同可能性的试验，图灵对这个课题做出了创新性的贡献。他写了两篇讨论数学方法的论文，题目是《概率在密码学中的应用》和《重复次数的统计学论文》 ，这两篇论文对 gc & cs 和它的继任者 GCHQ 如此重要，以至于直到2012年4月，也就是他诞辰100周年之前不久，才向英国国家档案馆发表。一位“自称理查德”的英国国家通信总局(GCHQ)数学家当时表示，《官方机密法案》(Official Secrets Act)约70年来一直对其内容加以限制，这一事实证明了它们的重要性，以及它们与战后密码分析的关联性: − − Turing had a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as "Prof" and his treatise on Enigma was known as the "Prof's Book".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=208}}</ref> According to historian [[Ronald Lewin]], [[I.J. Good|Jack Good]], a cryptanalyst who worked with Turing, said of his colleague: − − Turing had a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as "Prof" and his treatise on Enigma was known as the "Prof's Book". According to historian Ronald Lewin, Jack Good, a cryptanalyst who worked with Turing, said of his colleague: − − 图灵在 Bletchley Park 以古怪著称。他的同事们称他为“教授”，他关于英格玛的专著也被称为“教授之书”。根据历史学家罗纳德 · 列文的说法，与图灵共事的密码分析师杰克 · 古德这样评价他的同事: − − {{blockquote|In the first week of June each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever, and he would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off. His bicycle had a fault: the chain would come off at regular intervals. Instead of having it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle in time to adjust the chain by hand. Another of his eccentricities is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lewin|1978|p=57}}</ref>}} − − [[Peter Hilton]] recounted his experience working with Turing in [[Hut 8]] in his "Reminiscences of Bletchley Park" from ''A Century of Mathematics in America:''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ams.org/publicoutreach/math-history/hmath1-hilton22.pdf|title=A Century of Mathematics in America, Part 1, Reminiscences of Bletchley Park|last=Hilton|first=Peter|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829112241/http://www.ams.org/publicoutreach/math-history/hmath1-hilton22.pdf|archive-date=29 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> − − Peter Hilton recounted his experience working with Turing in Hut 8 in his "Reminiscences of Bletchley Park" from A Century of Mathematics in America: − − 彼得 · 希尔顿在他的《 Bletchley Park 回忆录》中描述了他与图灵在 Hut 8共事的经历，该书选自《美国数学百年: − − {{blockquote| It is a rare experience to meet an authentic genius. Those of us privileged to inhabit the world of scholarship are familiar with the intellectual stimulation furnished by talented colleagues. We can admire the ideas they share with us and are usually able to understand their source; we may even often believe that we ourselves could have created such concepts and originated such thoughts. However, the experience of sharing the intellectual life of a genius is entirely different; one realizes that one is in the presence of an intelligence, a sensibility of such profundity and originality that one is filled with wonder and excitement. − Alan Turing was such a genius, and those, like myself, who had the astonishing and unexpected opportunity, created by the strange exigencies of the Second World War, to be able to count Turing as colleague and friend will never forget that experience, nor can we ever lose its immense benefit to us.|sign=|source=}} − − Hilton echoed similar thoughts in the Nova [[PBS]] documentary ''Decoding Nazi Secrets''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2615decoding.html|title=NOVA {{!}} Transcripts {{!}} Decoding Nazi Secrets {{!}} PBS|last=Hilton|first=Peter|website=[[PBS]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829112240/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2615decoding.html|archive-date=29 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> − − Hilton echoed similar thoughts in the Nova PBS documentary Decoding Nazi Secrets. − − 希尔顿在诺瓦美国公共广播公司的纪录片《解码纳粹秘密》中也表达了类似的想法。 − − While working at Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented [[Long-distance running|long-distance runner]], occasionally ran the {{convert|40|mi}} to London when he was needed for meetings,<ref>{{Cite book | last = Brown | first = Anthony Cave | author-link = Anthony Cave Brown | title = Bodyguard of Lies: The Extraordinary True Story Behind D-Day | publisher=The Lyons Press | year = 1975 | isbn = 978-1-59921-383-5 }}</ref> and he was capable of world-class marathon standards.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/10/alan-turing-2012-olympics|title=An Olympic honour for Alan Turing|author=Graham-Cumming, John|newspaper=The Guardian|date=10 March 2010|location=London|access-date=10 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201171628/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/10/alan-turing-2012-olympics|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Pat | last=Butcher | url=http://www.globerunner.org/index.php/09/in-praise-of-great-men/ | title=In Praise of Great Men | publisher=Globe Runner | date=14 September 2009 | access-date=23 June 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818145759/http://www.globerunner.org/index.php/09/in-praise-of-great-men/ | archive-date=18 August 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team, but he was hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas Richards' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was Walton Athletic Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Hodges | first1 = Andrew | author-link = Andrew Hodges | title = Alan Turing: a short biography | url = http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part6.html | publisher = Alan Turing: The Enigma | access-date = 12 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130914091359/http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part6.html | archive-date = 14 September 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last1 = Graham-Cumming | first1 = John | author-link = John Graham-Cumming | title = Alan Turing: a short biography | url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/10/alan-turing-2012-olympics | newspaper = The Guardian | date = 10 March 2010 | access-date = 12 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141108165218/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/10/alan-turing-2012-olympics | archive-date = 8 November 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last1 = Butcher | first1 = Pat | title = Turing as a runner | url = http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Turing_running.html | publisher = The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive | date = December 1999 | access-date = 12 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141113020916/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Turing_running.html | archive-date = 13 November 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref> When asked why he ran so hard in training he replied: − − While working at Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the to London when he was needed for meetings, and he was capable of world-class marathon standards. Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team, but he was hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas Richards' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was Walton Athletic Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone. When asked why he ran so hard in training he replied: − − 在布莱奇利工作的时候，图灵是一个天才的长跑运动员，偶尔在会议需要他的时候跑到伦敦，他有能力达到世界级的马拉松水平。图灵参加了1948年英国奥林匹克代表队的选拔，但是他受伤了。他参加马拉松比赛的预选赛时间只比英国银牌得主托马斯 · 理查兹奥运会比赛时间2小时35分钟慢11分钟。他是沃尔顿运动俱乐部最好的跑步者，这个事实是在他独自跑步时超过了大家发现的。当被问及为什么他在训练中如此努力地跑步时，他回答说: − − {{blockquote|I have such a stressful job that the only way I can get it out of my mind is by running hard; it’s the only way I can get some release.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kottke.org/18/04/alan-turing-was-an-excellent-runner |first=Jason |last=Kottke |title=Turing was an excellent runner |website=kottke.org}}</ref>}} − − Due to the problems of [[counterfactual history]], it is hard to estimate the precise effect Ultra intelligence had on the war.<ref>See for example {{cite book|last=Richelson|first=Jeffery T.|title=A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|page=296|author-link=Jeffrey T. Richelson}} and {{cite book|last=Hartcup|first=Guy|title=The Effect of Science on the Second World War|date=2000|publisher=Macmillan Press|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire|pages=96–99|author-link=Guy Hartcup}}</ref> However, official war historian [[Harry Hinsley]] estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over 14 million lives.<ref name="Hinsley 1996">{{citation | last = Hinsley | first = Harry | author-link = Harry Hinsley | title = The Influence of ULTRA in the Second World War | origyear = 1993 | year = 1996 | url = http://www.cix.co.uk/~klockstone/hinsley.htm }} Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University</ref> − − Due to the problems of counterfactual history, it is hard to estimate the precise effect Ultra intelligence had on the war.See for example and However, official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over 14 million lives. Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University − − 由于反事实的历史问题，很难精确估计超级情报对战争的影响。然而，官方战争历史学家哈里 · 辛斯利估计，这项工作使欧洲战争缩短了两年多，挽救了1400多万人的生命。1993年10月19日星期二在剑桥大学的演讲稿 − − At the end of the war, a memo was sent to all those who had worked at Bletchley Park, reminding them that the code of silence dictated by the Official Secrets Act did not end with the war but would continue indefinitely.<ref name="Collins"/> Thus, even though Turing was appointed an [[Order of the British Empire|Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) in 1946 by King [[George VI]] for his wartime services, his work remained secret for many years.<ref>{{cite news | title = Alan Turing: Colleagues share their memories | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18541715 | date = 23 June 2012 | work = BBC News | access-date = 21 June 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180707105436/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18541715 | archive-date = 7 July 2018 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="thegazette.co.uk">{{cite web|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/all-notices/content/114|title=This month in history: Alan Turing and the Enigma code|website=thegazette.co.uk|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626211800/https://www.thegazette.co.uk/all-notices/content/114|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> − − At the end of the war, a memo was sent to all those who had worked at Bletchley Park, reminding them that the code of silence dictated by the Official Secrets Act did not end with the war but would continue indefinitely. Thus, even though Turing was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1946 by King George VI for his wartime services, his work remained secret for many years. − − 战争结束时，一份备忘录发给了所有在 Bletchley Park 工作过的人，提醒他们《官方机密法案》规定的沉默代码并没有随着战争结束而结束，而是将无限期地继续下去。因此，尽管1946年国王乔治六世因其战时服务而任命图灵为大英帝国勋章军官，他的工作仍然保密了许多年。 − − ===Bombe=== − {{Main|Bombe}} − − Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park,<ref name="Copeland2006p378" /> Turing had specified an electromechanical machine called the [[bombe]], which could break Enigma more effectively than the Polish ''[[bomba (cryptography)|bomba kryptologiczna]]'', from which its name was derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician [[Gordon Welchman]], became one of the primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages.<ref>{{Citation |last= Welchman |first= Gordon |author-link= Gordon Welchman |orig-year= 1982 |year= 1997 |title= The Hut Six story: Breaking the Enigma codes |page= 81 |location= Cleobury Mortimer, England |publisher= M&M Baldwin |isbn= 978-0-947712-34-1 }}</ref> − − Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park, Turing had specified an electromechanical machine called the bombe, which could break Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna, from which its name was derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages. − − 在抵达 Bletchley Park 的几周内，图灵就指定了一种叫做 bombe 的机电设备，这种设备能够比波兰炸弹机(波兰)更有效地破解英格玛密码机，而波兰密码机正是源于此。通过数学家戈登 · 威尔奇曼提出的改进，炸弹成为主要的工具之一，也是主要的自动化工具，用于攻击密码信息。 − − [[File:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|right|A working replica of a [[bombe]] now at [[The National Museum of Computing]] on Bletchley Park]]The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable ''[[crib (cryptanalysis)|crib]]'': a fragment of probable [[plaintext]]. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 10<sup>19</sup> states, or 10<sup>22</sup> states for the four-rotor U-boat variant),<ref>Jack Good in "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003: with his caveat: "if my memory is correct".</ref> the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented [[Electromechanics|electromechanically]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tnmoc.org/bombe |title=The Turing-Welchman Bombe |website=The National Museum of Computing |access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> − − The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable crib: a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 1019 states, or 1022 states for the four-rotor U-boat variant),Jack Good in "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003: with his caveat: "if my memory is correct". the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically. − − 该 bombe 搜索可能正确的设置使用一个英格玛消息(即，转子顺序，转子设置和插件板设置)使用一个合适的抄袭: 一个可能的明文片段。对于每个可能的转子设置(大约有1019个状态，或者四旋翼 u 型潜艇的1022个状态) ，杰克 · 古德在2003年的《破解谜团的人》中写道: “如果我的记忆是正确的”。炸弹根据婴儿床执行一系列逻辑推理，用电子机械方式实现。 − − The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter, which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oakley|2006|p=40/03B}}</ref> − − The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter, which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940. − − 当矛盾发生时，炸弹被发现，并排除了这种情况，继续下一个。大多数可能的设置都会引起矛盾并被丢弃，只剩下少数需要详细调查。当一个加密的字母被转换回同样的明文字母时，矛盾就产生了，这对于恩尼格玛来说是不可能的。第一个炸弹于1940年3月18日安装。 − − By late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] and [[Stuart Milner-Barry]] were frustrated. Building on the [[Biuro Szyfrów#Gift to allies|work of the Poles]], they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all the signals. In the summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but had failed.<ref name=":0" /> − − By late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated. Building on the work of the Poles, they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all the signals. In the summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but had failed. − − 到1941年底，图灵和他的密码分析师同事戈登 · 威尔奇曼、休 · 亚历山大和斯图尔特 · 米尔纳-巴里都感到沮丧。在波兰人工作的基础上，他们建立了一个很好的解密英格玛信号的工作系统，但是他们有限的人员和炸弹意味着他们无法翻译所有的信号。在夏天，他们取得了相当大的成功，运输损失已经降到每月不到10万吨; 然而，他们急需更多的资源来跟上德国的调整。他们试图通过适当的渠道获得更多的人和资金更多的炸弹，但失败了。 − − On 28 October they wrote directly to [[Winston Churchill]] explaining their difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces.<ref name=":0">{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=218}}</ref> As [[Andrew Hodges]], biographer of Turing, later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect."<ref name="Hodges 1983 221">{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=221}}</ref> Churchill wrote a memo to [[Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay|General Ismay]], which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November, the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken.<ref name="Hodges 1983 221"/> The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth."<ref>Copeland, ''The Essential Turing'', [http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/~aar/turingletter.pdf pp. 336–337] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218142127/http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/~aar/turingletter.pdf |date=18 February 2015 }}.</ref> More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war.<ref name=codebreaker>{{cite web | last1 = Copeland | first1 = Jack | last2 = Proudfoot | first2 = Diane | author-link = Jack Copeland | title = Alan Turing, Codebreaker and Computer Pioneer | url = http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/codebreaker.html | publisher = alanturing.net | date = May 2004 | access-date = 27 July 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070709065520/http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/codebreaker.html | archive-date = 9 July 2007 | url-status = live }}</ref> − − On 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill explaining their difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces. As Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing, later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect." Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay, which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November, the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken. The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth."Copeland, The Essential Turing, pp. 336–337 . More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war. − − 10月28日，他们直接写信给温斯顿·丘吉尔解释他们的困难，首先提到的是图灵。她们强调，与军队花费的大量人力和财力相比，她们的需求是多么微不足道，与她们能够提供给军队的援助水平相比，她们的需求又是多么微不足道。正如图灵的传记作者安德鲁 · 霍奇斯后来写道: “这封信产生了电子效应。”丘吉尔给伊斯梅将军写了一份备忘录，上面写着: “今日行动。确保他们得到了他们想要的一切，并给我报告说已经完成了这项工作。”11月18日，特勤处处长报告说，正在采取一切可能的措施。Bletchley Park 的密码专家们并不知道首相的反应，但正如米尔纳-巴里回忆的那样，“我们所注意到的是，几乎从那天起，崎岖的道路奇迹般地变得平坦起来。“ Copeland，The Essential Turing，pp。336–337 .到战争结束时，已有两百多个炸弹投入使用。 − − [[File:Turing-statue-Bletchley 14.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Statue of Turing by [[Stephen Kettle]] at Bletchley Park, commissioned by [[Sidney Frank]], built from half a million pieces of Welsh slate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bletchley Park Unveils Statue Commemorating Alan Turing |url=http://www.bletchleypark.org.uk/news/docview.rhtm/454075 |access-date=30 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630083823/http://www.bletchleypark.org.uk/news/docview.rhtm/454075 |archive-date=30 June 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] − − ===Hut 8 and the naval Enigma=== − Turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma#German Naval Enigma|German naval Enigma]] "because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself".<ref name=MahonP14>{{Harvnb|Mahon|1945|p=14}}</ref> In December 1939, Turing solved the essential part of the naval [[Enigma machine#Indicator|indicator]] system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services.<ref name=MahonP14 /><ref>{{Harvnb|Leavitt|2007|pp=184–186}}</ref> − − Turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma "because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself". In December 1939, Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. − − 图灵决定解决德国海军谜团这个特别困难的问题，“因为没有其他人对此做任何事，而我可以独享它”。1939年12月，图灵解决了海军指示器系统的关键部分，它比其他军种使用的指示器系统更复杂。 − − That same night, he also conceived of the idea of ''[[Banburismus]]'', a sequential statistical technique (what [[Abraham Wald]] later called [[sequential analysis]]) to assist in breaking the naval Enigma, "though I was not sure that it would work in practice, and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken."<ref name=MahonP14 /> For this, he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ''[[Ban (unit)|ban]]''. ''Banburismus'' could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gladwin|first=Lee|date=Fall 1997|title=Alan Turing, Enigma, and the Breaking of German Machine Ciphers in World War II|url=https://www.archives.gov/files/publications/prologue/1997/fall/turing.pdf|journal=Prologue Magazine|volume=Fall 1997|pages=202–217|via=National Archives|access-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626211657/https://www.archives.gov/files/publications/prologue/1997/fall/turing.pdf|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Later this sequential process of accumulating sufficient weight of evidence using decibans (one tenth of a ban) was used in [[Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Good | first1 = Jack | author-link = I. J. Good | last2 = Michie | first2 = Donald | author2-link = Donald Michie | last3 = Timms | first3 = Geoffrey | title = General Report on Tunny: With Emphasis on Statistical Methods | year = 1945 | id = UK Public Record Office HW 25/4 and HW 25/5 | url = http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/t/t15/TR15-018.html | at = Part 3 Organisation: 38 Wheel-breaking from Key, Page 293 | access-date = 13 April 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190421091539/http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/t/t15/TR15-018.html | archive-date = 21 April 2019 | url-status = live }}</ref> − − That same night, he also conceived of the idea of Banburismus, a sequential statistical technique (what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis) to assist in breaking the naval Enigma, "though I was not sure that it would work in practice, and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken." For this, he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban. Banburismus could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes. Later this sequential process of accumulating sufficient weight of evidence using decibans (one tenth of a ban) was used in Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher. − − 同一天晚上，他还提出了 Banburismus 的想法，这是一种序列统计技术(亚伯拉罕 · 沃尔德后来称之为序列分析) ，以帮助破解海军的谜团，“尽管我不确定它在实践中是否有效，事实上，直到有些日子真正破解之前，我也不确定。”为此，他发明了一种衡量证据重量的方法，他称之为禁令。班布里斯马斯可以排除恩尼格玛转子的某些序列，大大缩短了测试炸弹设置所需的时间。后来，这种使用十分之一密码(decibans)积累足够重量证据的顺序过程被用于对洛伦兹密码的密码分析。 − − Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=242–245}}</ref> and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington; he also visited their [[United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory|Computing Machine Laboratory]] in [[Dayton, Ohio]]. − − Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington; he also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio. − − 图灵于1942年11月前往美国，与美国海军密码分析师一起在华盛顿进行海军恩尼格玛密码机和炸弹建造; 他还参观了位于俄亥俄州代顿的计算机实验室。 − − Turing's reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic: − {{blockquote|text=The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel order. I used to smile inwardly at the conception of Bombe hut routine implied by this programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by pointing out that we would not really use them in that way. − − Turing's reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic: − {{blockquote|text=The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel order. I used to smile inwardly at the conception of Bombe hut routine implied by this programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by pointing out that we would not really use them in that way. − − 图灵对美国 Bombe 设计的反应远非热情: { blockquote | text = The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes，one for each wheel order。对于这个节目暗示的炸弹屋例行公事的概念，我曾暗自微笑，但我认为指出我们不会以这种方式真正使用它们，不会达到任何特定的目的。 − − Their test (of commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for the bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods or offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turing |first=Alan M. |year=2001 |journal=Cryptologia |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1080/0161-110191889734 |title=Visit to National Cash Register Corporation of Dayton, Ohio |s2cid=14207094 }}</ref>|source=}} − − Their test (of commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for the bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods or offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about it.|source=}} − − 他们的测试(换向器)很难被认为是决定性的，因为他们没有测试弹跳与电子停止寻找设备。似乎没有人被告知棒、官员或班布里斯马斯，除非他们真的要做些什么。开始 − − During this trip, he also assisted at [[Bell Labs]] with the development of [[secure speech]] devices.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=245–253}}</ref> He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, [[Colonel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been ''de facto'' head for some time (Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section). Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marshallfoundation.org/newsroom/marshall-legacy-series/codebreaking/|title=Marshall Legacy Series: Codebreaking – Events|website=marshallfoundation.org|access-date=7 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407030638/https://www.marshallfoundation.org/newsroom/marshall-legacy-series/codebreaking/|archive-date=7 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> − − During this trip, he also assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure speech devices. He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been de facto head for some time (Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section). Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park. − − 在这次旅行中，他还在贝尔实验室协助开发安全语音设备。他于1943年3月返回 Bletchley Park。在他缺席期间，休 · 亚历山大正式担任了 Hut 8的负责人，尽管亚历山大实际上已经领导了一段时间(图灵对该部分的日常运行没有什么兴趣)。图灵成为了 Bletchley Park 密码分析的总顾问。 − − Alexander wrote of Turing's contribution: − {{blockquote|There should be no question in anyone's mind that Turing's work was the biggest factor in Hut 8's success. In the early days, he was the only cryptographer who thought the problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for the main theoretical work within the Hut, but he also shared with Welchman and Keen the chief credit for the invention of the bombe. It is always difficult to say that anyone is 'absolutely indispensable', but if anyone was indispensable to Hut 8, it was Turing. The pioneer's work always tends to be forgotten when experience and routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in Hut 8 felt that the magnitude of Turing's contribution was never fully realised by the outside world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|circa 1945|p=42}}</ref>}} − − Alexander wrote of Turing's contribution: − − − 亚历山大这样评价图灵的贡献: − − ===Turingery=== − In July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed ''[[Turingery]]'' (or jokingly ''Turingismus'')<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=380}}</ref> for use against the [[Lorenz cipher]] messages produced by the Germans' new ''Geheimschreiber'' (secret writer) machine. This was a [[teleprinter]] [[Rotor machine|rotor cipher attachment]] codenamed ''Tunny'' at Bletchley Park. Turingery was a method of ''wheel-breaking'', i.e., a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=381}}</ref> He also introduced the Tunny team to [[Tommy Flowers]] who, under the guidance of [[Max Newman]], went on to build the [[Colossus computer]], the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced a simpler prior machine (the [[Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)|Heath Robinson]]), and whose superior speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the messages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=72}}</ref> Some have mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus computer. Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed into the thinking about [[cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Gannon|2007|p=230}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hilton|2006|pp=197–199}}</ref> but he was not directly involved in the Colossus development.<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|pp=382, 383}}</ref> − − In July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed Turingery (or jokingly Turingismus) for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans' new Geheimschreiber (secret writer) machine. This was a teleprinter rotor cipher attachment codenamed Tunny at Bletchley Park. Turingery was a method of wheel-breaking, i.e., a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels. He also introduced the Tunny team to Tommy Flowers who, under the guidance of Max Newman, went on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced a simpler prior machine (the Heath Robinson), and whose superior speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the messages. Some have mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus computer. Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed into the thinking about cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher, but he was not directly involved in the Colossus development. − − = = Turingery = = = 1942年7月，图灵发明了一种称为 Turingery (或开玩笑地称为 Turingismus)的技术，用来对付德国人的新型秘密作家机器产生的洛伦兹密码信息。这是一台电传打字机转子密码附件，代号为 Tunny，位于 Bletchley Park。车轮修理是车轮折断的一种方法，也就是计算出图尼车轮凸轮设置的一种程序。他还把 Tunny 团队介绍给了 Tommy Flowers，后者在 Max Newman 的指导下，建造了世界上第一台可编程数字电子计算机——巨像计算机，它取代了之前更简单的机器(Heath Robinson) ，其出色的速度使得统计解密技术能够有效地应用于信息。有些人错误地认为图灵是巨像计算机设计中的关键人物。图灵厄立特和班布里斯马斯的统计方法无疑为洛伦兹密码的密码分析思想提供了思路，但他并没有直接参与巨像的发展。 − − ===Delilah=== − Following his work at [[Bell Labs]] in the US,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=245–250}}</ref> Turing pursued the idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system. In the latter part of the war, he moved to work for the Secret Service's Radio Security Service (later [[Her Majesty's Government Communications Centre|HMGCC]]) at [[Hanslope Park]]. At the park, he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bayley. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable [[secure voice]] communications machine codenamed ''[[Delilah (voice encryption)|Delilah]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=273}}</ref> The machine was intended for different applications, but it lacked the capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions. In any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though the system worked fully, with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a [[Winston Churchill]] speech, Delilah was not adopted for use.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=346}}</ref> Turing also consulted with Bell Labs on the development of [[SIGSALY]], a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war. − − Following his work at Bell Labs in the US, Turing pursued the idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system. In the latter part of the war, he moved to work for the Secret Service's Radio Security Service (later HMGCC) at Hanslope Park. At the park, he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bayley. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed Delilah. The machine was intended for different applications, but it lacked the capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions. In any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though the system worked fully, with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not adopted for use. Turing also consulted with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY, a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war. − − = = Delilah = = = 继美国贝尔实验室的工作之后，图灵在电话系统中追求电子加密语音的想法。在战争后期，他转而为特勤局的无线电安全服务(后来的 hmgc)在 Hanslope Park 工作。在公园里，他在工程师唐纳德 · 贝利的帮助下进一步发展了他的电子学知识。他们一起设计和建造了一个代号为 Delilah 的便携式安全语音通信机器。这种机器是为不同的应用而设计的，但是它缺乏用于长距离无线电传输的能力。无论如何，黛利拉完成得太晚了，不能在战争期间使用。虽然这个系统运行良好，图灵通过加密和解密一段温斯顿·丘吉尔的演讲录音向官员们展示了它，Delilah 并没有被采用。图灵还咨询了贝尔实验室关于 SIGSALY 的开发，这是一个安全的语音系统，在战争后期使用。 − − ===Early computers and the Turing test=== − [[File:Alan Turing 78 High Street Hampton blue plaque.jpg|thumb|Plaque, 78 High Street, [[Hampton, London|Hampton]]]] − Between 1945 and 1947, Turing lived in [[Hampton, London|Hampton]], London,<ref>{{openplaque|1619}}</ref> while he worked on the design of the [[ACE (computer)|ACE]] (Automatic Computing Engine) at the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory (NPL)]]. He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a [[stored-program computer]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=108}}</ref> [[John von Neumann|Von Neumann]]'s incomplete ''[[First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC]]'' had predated Turing's paper, but it was much less detailed and, according to [[John R. Womersley]], Superintendent of the NPL Mathematics Division, it "contains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing's own".<ref>{{cite web | last = Randell | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Randell | title = A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: Colossus | year = 1980 | url = http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/books/papers/133.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120127144927/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/books/papers/133.pdf | archive-date = 27 January 2012 | url-status = live }} citing {{Cite journal | last = Womersley | first = J.R. | author-link = John R. Womersley | title = 'ACE' Machine Project | journal=Executive Committee, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex | date = 13 February 1946 }}</ref> − − − Between 1945 and 1947, Turing lived in Hampton, London, while he worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer. Von Neumann's incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC had predated Turing's paper, but it was much less detailed and, according to John R. Womersley, Superintendent of the NPL Mathematics Division, it "contains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing's own". citing − − 早期的计算机和图灵测试1945年至1947年，图灵生活在汉普顿，在国家物理实验室(NPL)从事自动计算引擎(ACE)的设计工作。他在1946年2月19日发表了一篇论文，这是第一个详细设计的储存程式计算机。的不完整的 EDVAC报告书的第一份草案在图灵论文之前就已经发表了，但是它没有那么详细，而且，根据 NPL 数学部门的负责人 John r. Womersley 的说法，它“包含了许多图灵博士自己的想法”。引用 − − Although ACE was a feasible design, the effect of the [[Official Secrets Act 1939|Official Secrets Act]] surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park made it impossible for Turing to explain the basis of his analysis of how a computer installation involving human operators would work.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Alan_Turing_The_Enigma/4muYDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22Twenty%20years%20ahead%20of%20his%20time%22 416] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-16472-4}}</ref> This led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal work on ''Intelligent Machinery'' that was not published in his lifetime.<ref>See {{harvnb|Copeland|2004b|pp=410–432}}</ref> While he was at Cambridge, the [[Pilot ACE]] was being built in his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of later computers around the world owe much to it, including the [[English Electric DEUCE]] and the American [[Bendix G-15]]. The full version of Turing's ACE was not built until after his death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npl.co.uk/about/history/notable-individuals/turing/|title=Turing at NPL|access-date=3 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705082340/http://www.npl.co.uk/about/history/notable-individuals/turing/|archive-date=5 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> − − Although ACE was a feasible design, the effect of the Official Secrets Act surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park made it impossible for Turing to explain the basis of his analysis of how a computer installation involving human operators would work. This led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal work on Intelligent Machinery that was not published in his lifetime.See While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was being built in his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of later computers around the world owe much to it, including the English Electric DEUCE and the American Bendix G-15. The full version of Turing's ACE was not built until after his death. − − 尽管 ACE 是一个可行的设计，但围绕 Bletchley Park 战时工作的《官方机密法》(Official Secrets Act)的影响，使得图灵无法解释他对涉及人工操作员的计算机安装如何工作的分析基础。这导致了项目开始的延迟，他开始感到幻灭。1947年末，他回到剑桥休假一年，在此期间，他完成了一部关于智能机械的开创性著作，但这部著作在他有生之年并未出版。当他在剑桥的时候，飞行员 ACE 正在他不在的时候建造。它在1950年5月10日执行了它的第一个程序，后来世界各地的许多计算机都归功于它，包括英国电动 DEUCE 和美国本迪克斯 G-15。图灵 ACE 的完整版直到他死后才被制造出来。 − − According to the memoirs of the German computer pioneer [[Heinz Billing]] from the [[Max Planck Institute for Physics]], published by Genscher, Düsseldorf, there was a meeting between Turing and [[Konrad Zuse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mathcomp.leeds.ac.uk/turing2012/Images/Turing_Zuse.pdf|title=Did Alan Turing interrogate Konrad Zuse in Göttingen in 1947?|author=Bruderer, Herbert|access-date=7 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521211106/http://www.mathcomp.leeds.ac.uk/turing2012/Images/Turing_Zuse.pdf|archive-date=21 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> It took place in [[Göttingen]] in 1947. The interrogation had the form of a colloquium. Participants were Womersley, Turing, Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse, Walther, and Billing (for more details see Herbert Bruderer, ''Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz''). − − According to the memoirs of the German computer pioneer Heinz Billing from the Max Planck Institute for Physics, published by Genscher, Düsseldorf, there was a meeting between Turing and Konrad Zuse. It took place in Göttingen in 1947. The interrogation had the form of a colloquium. Participants were Womersley, Turing, Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse, Walther, and Billing (for more details see Herbert Bruderer, Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz). − − 根据杜塞尔多夫的根舍出版社出版的德国计算机先驱亨氏马克斯·普朗克物理学研究所的回忆录，图灵和康拉德 · 祖泽之间有过一次会面。故事发生在1947年的格丁根。这种审问采取了座谈会的形式。参与者分别是来自英国的沃姆斯利、图灵、波特和一些德国研究人员，比如 Zuse、 Walther 和 Billing (更多细节参见 Herbert Bruderer、 Konrad Zuse 和 die Schweiz)。 − − In 1948, Turing was appointed [[Reader (academic rank)|reader]] in the [[School of Mathematics, University of Manchester|Mathematics Department]] at the [[Victoria University of Manchester]]. A year later, he became deputy director of the Computing Machine Laboratory, where he worked on software for one of the earliest [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program]] computers—the [[Manchester Mark 1]]. Turing wrote the first version of the Programmer's Manual for this machine, and was recruited by Ferranti as a consultant in the development of their commercialised machine, the Ferranti Mark 1. He continued to be paid consultancy fees by Ferranti until his death.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.manturing.net/|title=Alan Turing's Manchester|last=Swinton|first=Jonathan|publisher=Infang Publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-0-9931789-2-4|location=Manchester|access-date=18 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217172318/https://www.manturing.net/|archive-date=17 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> During this time, he continued to do more abstract work in mathematics,<ref name="doi10.1093/qjmam/1.1.287">{{Cite journal|last1 = Turing |first1 = A.M.|doi = 10.1093/qjmam/1.1.287 |title = Rounding-Off Errors in Matrix Processes |journal = The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics |volume = 1| pages = 287–308 |year = 1948|hdl = 10338.dmlcz/103139}}</ref> and in "[[Computing Machinery and Intelligence]]" (''[[Mind (journal)|Mind]]'', October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of [[artificial intelligence]], and proposed an experiment that became known as the [[Turing test]], an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that a computer could be said to "think" if a human interrogator could not tell it apart, through conversation, from a human being.<ref>[[Stevan Harnad|Harnad, Stevan]] (2008) [http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/262954/ The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery and Intelligence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018070225/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/262954/ |date=18 October 2017 }}. In: Epstein, Robert & Peters, Grace (Eds.) ''Parsing the Turing Test: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer''. Springer</ref> In the paper, Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. A [[Turing test#Reverse Turing test and CAPTCHA|reversed]] form of the Turing test is widely used on the Internet; the [[CAPTCHA]] test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer. − − In 1948, Turing was appointed reader in the Mathematics Department at the Victoria University of Manchester. A year later, he became deputy director of the Computing Machine Laboratory, where he worked on software for one of the earliest stored-program computers—the Manchester Mark 1. Turing wrote the first version of the Programmer's Manual for this machine, and was recruited by Ferranti as a consultant in the development of their commercialised machine, the Ferranti Mark 1. He continued to be paid consultancy fees by Ferranti until his death. During this time, he continued to do more abstract work in mathematics, and in "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an experiment that became known as the Turing test, an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that a computer could be said to "think" if a human interrogator could not tell it apart, through conversation, from a human being.Harnad, Stevan (2008) The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery and Intelligence . In: Epstein, Robert & Peters, Grace (Eds.) Parsing the Turing Test: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer. Springer In the paper, Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. A reversed form of the Turing test is widely used on the Internet; the CAPTCHA test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer. − − 1948年，图灵被任命为曼彻斯特维多利亚大学数学系的讲师。一年后，他成为计算机机器实验室的副主任，在那里，他为最早的存储程序计算机之一——曼彻斯特 Mark 1——开发软件。图灵为这台机器写了第一版程序员手册，并被费兰蒂聘为他们商业化机器费兰蒂马克1的开发顾问。他继续支付费朗蒂咨询费，直到他去世。在此期间，他继续从事更多抽象的数学工作，在《计算机器与智能》(1950年10月，心智)一书中，图灵提出了人工智能的问题，并提出了一个后来被称为图灵测试的实验，试图为机器定义一个被称为“智能”的标准。当时的想法是，如果人类审讯者无法通过对话将电脑与人类区分开来，那么电脑就可以说是在“思考”。哈纳德，斯蒂文(2008)的注释游戏: 关于图灵(1950)的计算，机械和智能。年: 爱普斯坦，罗伯特 & 彼得斯，格雷斯(编)解析图灵测试: 思维计算机探索中的哲学与方法论问题。斯普林格在论文中，图灵提出，与其编写一个程序来模拟成人的思维，不如编写一个更简单的程序来模拟儿童的思维，然后对其进行一系列的教育。图灵测试的反向形式在互联网上被广泛使用; CAPTCHA 测试的目的是确定用户是人还是计算机。 − − In 1948 Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, [[D.G. Champernowne]], began writing a [[chess]] program for a computer that did not yet exist. By 1950, the program was completed and dubbed the [[Turochamp]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Clark|first=Liat|title=Turing's achievements: codebreaking, AI and the birth of computer science|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-06/18/turing-contributions?page=all|magazine=Wired|access-date=11 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102122933/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-06/18/turing-contributions?page=all|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1952, he tried to implement it on a [[Ferranti Mark 1]], but lacking enough power, the computer was unable to execute the program. Instead, Turing "ran" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and carrying out its instructions on a chessboard, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded.<ref>[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1356927 Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952) "Turing Test"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219033248/http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1356927 |date=19 February 2006 }} Chessgames.com</ref> According to [[Garry Kasparov]], Turing's program "played a recognizable game of chess."<ref>Kasparov, Garry, Smart machines will free us all, ''The Wall Street Journal'', 15–16 April 2017, p. c3</ref> The program lost to Turing's colleague [[Alick Glennie]], although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne's wife, − Isabel.<ref>{{cite web|last1=O'Connor|first1=J.J.|last2=Robertson|first2=E.F.|title=David Gawen Champernowne|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Champernowne.html|work=MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland|access-date=22 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019123016/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Champernowne.html|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> − − In 1948 Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. By 1950, the program was completed and dubbed the Turochamp. In 1952, he tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1, but lacking enough power, the computer was unable to execute the program. Instead, Turing "ran" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and carrying out its instructions on a chessboard, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded.Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952) "Turing Test" Chessgames.com According to Garry Kasparov, Turing's program "played a recognizable game of chess."Kasparov, Garry, Smart machines will free us all, The Wall Street Journal, 15–16 April 2017, p. c3 The program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne's wife, − Isabel. − − 1948年，图灵与他以前的本科生同事 d.g。Champernowne，开始为一台还不存在的计算机编写国际象棋程序。到了1950年，这个项目完成了，并被称为图罗尚。在1952年，他试图实现它在一个费朗蒂马克1，但由于缺乏足够的权力，计算机无法执行该程序。取而代之的是，图灵通过快速浏览算法页面并在棋盘上执行指令来“运行”程序，每次运行大约需要半个小时。比赛被记录了下来。Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952)“ Turing Test”chessgames. com 根据 Garry Kasparov 的说法，图灵的程序“玩的是一种公认的国际象棋游戏。“卡斯帕罗夫，加里，智能机器将解放我们所有人，《华尔街日报》 ，2017年4月15日至16日，第 c3页。虽然据说它在一场比赛中击败了尚伯努尼的妻子伊莎贝尔，但这个程序输给了图灵的同事阿利克 · 格伦尼。 − − His Turing test was a significant, characteristically provocative, and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence, which continues after more than half a century.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Pinar Saygin | first1 = A. | last2 = Cicekli | first2 = I. | last3 = Akman | first3 = V. | journal = Minds and Machines | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 463–518 | year = 2000 |title=Turing Test: 50 Years Later| doi = 10.1023/A:1011288000451 | hdl = 11693/24987 | s2cid = 990084 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> − − His Turing test was a significant, characteristically provocative, and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence, which continues after more than half a century. − − 他的图灵测试是对人工智能争论的一个重要的、有特点的、持久的贡献，这场争论持续了半个多世纪。 − − ===Pattern formation and mathematical biology=== − − ===Pattern formation and mathematical biology=== − − = = = 模式形成和数学生物学 = = − − When Turing was 39 years old in 1951, he turned to [[Mathematical and theoretical biology|mathematical biology]], finally publishing his masterpiece "[[The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis]]" in January 1952. He was interested in [[morphogenesis]], the development of patterns and shapes in biological organisms. He suggested that a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, termed a [[reaction–diffusion system]], could account for "the main phenomena of morphogenesis".<ref>{{cite journal | first=Alan M. | last=Turing | author-link=Alan Turing | title=The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B | date=14 August 1952 | doi=10.1098/rstb.1952.0012 | volume=237 | number=641 | pages=37–72 | bibcode=1952RSPTB.237...37T | s2cid=120437796 }}</ref> He used systems of [[partial differential equations]] to model catalytic chemical reactions. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a certain chemical reaction to take place, and if the reaction produced more of the catalyst A, then we say that the reaction is [[autocatalytic]], and there is positive feedback that can be modelled by nonlinear differential equations. Turing discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the production of A. If A and B then diffused through the container at different rates, then you could have some regions where A dominated and some where B did. To calculate the extent of this, Turing would have needed a powerful computer, but these were not so freely available in 1951, so he had to use linear approximations to solve the equations by hand. These calculations gave the right qualitative results, and produced, for example, a uniform mixture that oddly enough had regularly spaced fixed red spots. The Russian biochemist [[Boris Pavlovich Belousov|Boris Belousov]] had performed experiments with similar results, but could not get his papers published because of the contemporary prejudice that any such thing violated the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. Belousov was not aware of Turing's paper in the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]''.<ref>John Gribbin, ''Deep Simplicity'', p. 126, Random House, 2004</ref> − − When Turing was 39 years old in 1951, he turned to mathematical biology, finally publishing his masterpiece "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in January 1952. He was interested in morphogenesis, the development of patterns and shapes in biological organisms. He suggested that a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, termed a reaction–diffusion system, could account for "the main phenomena of morphogenesis". He used systems of partial differential equations to model catalytic chemical reactions. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a certain chemical reaction to take place, and if the reaction produced more of the catalyst A, then we say that the reaction is autocatalytic, and there is positive feedback that can be modelled by nonlinear differential equations. Turing discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the production of A. If A and B then diffused through the container at different rates, then you could have some regions where A dominated and some where B did. To calculate the extent of this, Turing would have needed a powerful computer, but these were not so freely available in 1951, so he had to use linear approximations to solve the equations by hand. These calculations gave the right qualitative results, and produced, for example, a uniform mixture that oddly enough had regularly spaced fixed red spots. The Russian biochemist Boris Belousov had performed experiments with similar results, but could not get his papers published because of the contemporary prejudice that any such thing violated the second law of thermodynamics. Belousov was not aware of Turing's paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.John Gribbin, Deep Simplicity, p. 126, Random House, 2004 − − 1951年，39岁的图灵转向数学生物学，最终于1952年1月出版了他的杰作《形态发生的化学基础》。他对形态发生很感兴趣，即生物有机体中模式和形状的发展。他认为，一个化学物质相互反应并在空间扩散的系统，称为反应扩散系统，可以解释“形态发生的主要现象”。他用偏微分方程系统来模拟催化化学反应。例如，如果一个特定的化学反应需要一个催化剂 a，并且如果该反应产生了更多的催化剂 a，那么我们说该反应是自催化的，并且有正反馈，可以用非线性微分方程来模拟。图灵发现，如果化学反应不仅产生了催化剂 a，而且还产生了抑制剂 b，从而减缓了 a 的生成，那么这些图案就可以被创造出来。如果 a 和 b 以不同的速率在容器中扩散，那么可能会有 a 占优势的区域和 b 占优势的区域。为了计算这种程度，图灵需要一台功能强大的计算机，但是在1951年，这些计算机还没有那么容易获得，所以他不得不用线性近似法手工求解方程。这些计算给出了正确的定性结果，并产生了一种均匀的混合物，例如，奇怪的是，这种混合物有规则地分布着固定的红点。俄罗斯生物化学家 Boris Belousov 也进行过类似的实验，但由于当时的偏见，他的论文无法发表，因为任何这样的事情都违反了热力学第二定律。贝洛索夫并不知道图灵在《皇家学会哲学汇刊》上发表的论文。126，Random House，2004 − − Although published before the structure and role of [[DNA]] was understood, Turing's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today and is considered a seminal piece of work in mathematical biology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swintons.net/deodands/archives/000087.html |title=Turing's Last, Lost work |access-date=28 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030823032620/http://www.swintons.net/deodands/archives/000087.html |archive-date=23 August 2003 }}</ref> One of the early applications of Turing's paper was the work by James Murray explaining spots and stripes on the fur of cats, large and small.<ref>James Murray, ''How the leopard gets its spots'', Scientific American, vol 258, number 3, p. 80, March 1988</ref><ref>James Murray, ''Mathematical Biology I'', 2007, Chapter 6, Springer Verlag</ref><ref>John Gibbin, Deep Simplicity, p. 134, Random House, 2004</ref> Further research in the area suggests that Turing's work can partially explain the growth of "feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.338.6113.1406|pmid=23239707|title=Turing Pattern Fingered for Digit Formation|journal=Science|volume=338|issue=6113|pages=1406|year=2012|last1=Vogel|first1=G.|bibcode=2012Sci...338.1406V}}</ref> In 2012, Sheth, et al. found that in mice, removal of [[Hox genes]] causes an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb, suggesting that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type mechanism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Sheth |first1 = R. |last2 = Marcon |first2 = L. |last3 = Bastida |first3 = M.F. |last4 = Junco |first4 = M. |last5 = Quintana |first5 = L. |last6 = Dahn |first6 = R. |last7 = Kmita |first7 = M. |last8 = Sharpe |first8 = J. |last9 = Ros |first9 = M.A. |doi = 10.1126/science.1226804 |title = Hox Genes Regulate Digit Patterning by Controlling the Wavelength of a Turing-Type Mechanism |journal = Science |volume = 338 |issue = 6113 |pages = 1476–1480 |year = 2012 |pmid = 23239739 |pmc = 4486416 |bibcode = 2012Sci...338.1476S }}</ref> Later papers were not available until ''Collected Works of A. M. Turing'' was published in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Alan Turing Bibliography|url=http://www.turing.org.uk/sources/biblio3.html|page=morphogenesis|publisher=turing.org.uk|access-date=27 July 2015|author=Andrew Hodges|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905180420/http://www.turing.org.uk/sources/biblio3.html|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> − − Although published before the structure and role of DNA was understood, Turing's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today and is considered a seminal piece of work in mathematical biology. One of the early applications of Turing's paper was the work by James Murray explaining spots and stripes on the fur of cats, large and small.James Murray, How the leopard gets its spots, Scientific American, vol 258, number 3, p. 80, March 1988James Murray, Mathematical Biology I, 2007, Chapter 6, Springer VerlagJohn Gibbin, Deep Simplicity, p. 134, Random House, 2004 Further research in the area suggests that Turing's work can partially explain the growth of "feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest." In 2012, Sheth, et al. found that in mice, removal of Hox genes causes an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb, suggesting that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type mechanism. Later papers were not available until Collected Works of A. M. Turing was published in 1992. − − 虽然在 DNA 的结构和作用被理解之前就已经发表了，但是图灵在形态发生方面的工作至今仍然有意义，并且被认为是数学生物学领域的一项开创性工作。图灵论文的早期应用之一是詹姆斯 · 默里的工作，他解释了大大小小的猫毛上的斑点和条纹。詹姆斯 · 默里，《豹子是如何长出斑点的》 ，《科学美国人》 ，第258卷，第3期，第80页，1988年3月詹姆斯 · 默里，《数学生物学 i 》 ，2007年，第6章，斯普林格出版社，约翰 · 吉宾，《深度简单》 ，第134页，兰登书屋，2004年进一步的研究表明，图灵的工作可以部分地解释“羽毛、毛囊、肺部模式，甚至是将心脏置于胸部左侧的左右不对称”的生长2012年，Sheth 等人。研究人员发现，在小鼠身上，去除 Hox 基因会导致手指数量的增加，而不会增加肢体的整体尺寸，这表明 Hox 基因通过调节图灵类型机制的波长来控制手指的形成。后来的论文直到1992年《图灵作品集》出版才被发表。 − − ==Personal life== − ===Engagement=== − In 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague [[Joan Clarke]], a fellow mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unfazed" by the revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leavitt|2007|pp=176–178}}</ref> − − In 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a fellow mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unfazed" by the revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage. − − 个人生活1941年，图灵向 Hut 8的同事琼 · 克拉克求婚，她是一位数学家和密码分析家，但他们的婚约是短暂的。在向他的未婚妻承认自己是同性恋后，图灵决定不再继续这段婚姻。据报道，他的未婚妻对此并不担心。 − − ===Conviction for indecency=== − In January 1952, Turing was 39 when he started a relationship with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed man. Just before Christmas, Turing was walking along Manchester's [[Wilmslow Road|Oxford Road]] when he met Murray just outside the [[Dancehouse|Regal Cinema]] and invited him to lunch. On 23 January, Turing's house was burgled. Murray told Turing that he and the burglar were acquainted, and Turing reported the crime to the police. During the investigation, he acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray. Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United Kingdom at that time,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=458}}</ref> and both men were charged with "[[gross indecency]]" under [[Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885#Section 11|Section 11]] of the [[Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885]].<ref name=LeavittP268>{{Harvnb|Leavitt|2007|p=268}}</ref> Initial [[committal procedure|committal proceedings]] for the trial were held on 27 February during which Turing's solicitor "reserved his defence", i.e., did not argue or provide evidence against the allegations. − − In January 1952, Turing was 39 when he started a relationship with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed man. Just before Christmas, Turing was walking along Manchester's Oxford Road when he met Murray just outside the Regal Cinema and invited him to lunch. On 23 January, Turing's house was burgled. Murray told Turing that he and the burglar were acquainted, and Turing reported the crime to the police. During the investigation, he acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray. Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United Kingdom at that time, and both men were charged with "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885. Initial committal proceedings for the trial were held on 27 February during which Turing's solicitor "reserved his defence", i.e., did not argue or provide evidence against the allegations. − − = = 被判猥亵罪 = = = 1952年1月，39岁的图灵与19岁的失业男子阿诺德 · 穆雷开始恋爱。就在圣诞节前，图灵在曼彻斯特的牛津路散步时，在 Regal 电影院外遇到了默里，并邀请他共进午餐。1月23日，图灵的家被盗。默里告诉图灵，他和窃贼是熟人，图灵向警方报案。在调查过程中，他承认与莫里发生过性关系。同性恋行为在当时的英国是犯罪行为，根据美国最高1885年刑事修正法令第11条，两人都被指控犯有“严重猥亵罪”。2月27日进行了初步交付审判程序，期间图灵的律师”保留了他的辩护”，即没有对指控进行辩论或提供证据。 − − Turing was later convinced by the advice of his brother and his own solicitor, and he entered a plea of guilty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=[https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg/page/463 463] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-691-15564-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg|url-access=registration }}</ref> The case, ''[[Elizabeth II|Regina]] v. Turing and Murray,'' was brought to trial on 31 March 1952.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=[https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg/page/471 471] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-691-15564-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg|url-access=registration }}</ref> Turing was convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation. His probation would be conditional on his agreement to undergo [[hormone|hormonal]] physical changes designed to reduce [[libido]]. He accepted the option of injections of what was then called stilboestrol (now known as [[diethylstilbestrol]] or DES), a synthetic [[oestrogen]]; this feminization of his body was continued for the course of one year. The treatment rendered Turing [[impotence|impotent]] and caused [[gynaecomastia|breast tissue to form]],<ref>{{cite book | title=Alan Turing: The Enigma The Centenary Edition | publisher=Princeton University | author= Hodges, Andrew | year=2012}}</ref> fulfilling in the literal sense Turing's prediction that "no doubt I shall emerge from it all a different man, but quite who I've not found out".<ref>{{cite web |title=Letters of Note: Yours in distress, Alan |last=Turing |first=Alan |year=1952 |url=http://www.lettersofnote.com/2012/06/yours-in-distress-alan.html |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120024901/http://www.lettersofnote.com/2012/06/yours-in-distress-alan.html |url-status=dead |access-date=16 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |publisher=Princeton University Press |author-link=Andrew Hodges |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |page=xxviii |year= 2012 |isbn=978-0-691-15564-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alanturingenigma0000hodg|url-access=registration }}</ref> Murray was given a conditional discharge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=473}}</ref> − − Turing was later convinced by the advice of his brother and his own solicitor, and he entered a plea of guilty. The case, Regina v. Turing and Murray, was brought to trial on 31 March 1952. Turing was convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation. His probation would be conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal physical changes designed to reduce libido. He accepted the option of injections of what was then called stilboestrol (now known as diethylstilbestrol or DES), a synthetic oestrogen; this feminization of his body was continued for the course of one year. The treatment rendered Turing impotent and caused breast tissue to form, fulfilling in the literal sense Turing's prediction that "no doubt I shall emerge from it all a different man, but quite who I've not found out". Murray was given a conditional discharge. − − 后来，图灵听从了他哥哥和他的律师的建议，认罪了。雷吉娜诉图灵和默里案于1952年3月31日开庭审理。图灵被判有罪，并在监禁和缓刑之间做出选择。他的缓刑将以他同意接受旨在降低性欲的荷尔蒙生理变化为条件。他接受了注射一种当时被称为己烯雌酚的合成雌激素的选择，这种女性化的身体持续了一年。这种治疗使得图灵无能为力，导致乳腺组织形成，从字面意义上实现了图灵的预言: “毫无疑问，我将从这一切中脱离出来，成为一个完全不同的人，但完全是一个我没有发现的人。”。默里被有条件地释放了。 − − Turing's conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for the [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), the British [[signals intelligence]] agency that had evolved from GC&CS in 1946, though he kept his academic job. He was denied entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952, but was free to visit other European countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=143}}</ref> − − Turing's conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British signals intelligence agency that had evolved from GC&CS in 1946, though he kept his academic job. He was denied entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952, but was free to visit other European countries. − − 图灵的定罪导致他的安全许可被撤销，并且禁止他继续为英国政府通信总部提供密码咨询服务，政府通信总部是1946年从 gc & cs 发展而来的英国信号情报机构，尽管他保留了他的学术工作。在1952年被定罪后，他被拒绝进入美国，但他可以自由地访问其他欧洲国家。 − − ===Death=== − [[File:Turing_Plaque.jpg|thumb|right|A blue plaque on the house at 43 Adlington Road, [[Wilmslow]] where Turing lived and died<ref name=copperfolly/>]] − On 8 June 1954, at his house at 43 Adlington Road, [[Wilmslow]],<ref name=copperfolly>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703105309/https://assets.savills.com/properties/GBWSRSWIS210139/WIS210139_WIS21003746.PDF|archive-date=3 July 2021|url=https://assets.savills.com/properties/GBWSRSWIS210139/WIS210139_WIS21003746.PDF|website=savills.com|author=Anon|year=2021|title=Turing's House: Copper Folly, 43 Adlington Road, Wilmslow, Cheshire, SK9 2BJ}}</ref> Turing's housekeeper found him dead. He had died the previous day at the age of 41. [[Cyanide poisoning]] was established as the cause of death.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alan-Turing#toc330986 |title=Alan Turing. Biography, Facts, & Education |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011184445/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alan-Turing#toc330986 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> When his body was discovered, an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed, and although the apple was not tested for cyanide,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=488}}</ref> it was speculated that this was the means by which Turing had consumed a fatal dose. An [[Inquests in England and Wales|inquest]] determined that he had committed suicide. Andrew Hodges and another biographer, [[David Leavitt]], have both speculated that Turing was re-enacting a scene from the [[Walt Disney]] film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' (1937), his favourite fairy tale. Both men noted that (in Leavitt's words) he took "an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew".<ref>{{Harvnb|Leavitt|2007|p=140}} and {{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=149, 489}}</ref> Turing's remains were cremated at [[Woking Crematorium]] on 12 June 1954,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|p=529}}</ref> and his ashes were scattered in the gardens of the crematorium, just as his father's had been.<ref name="hodges2012">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpAl0piM38cC |title=Alan Turing: The Enigma |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |date=2012 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4481-3781-7 |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117070027/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EpAl0piM38cC |archive-date=17 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> − − − On 8 June 1954, at his house at 43 Adlington Road, Wilmslow, Turing's housekeeper found him dead. He had died the previous day at the age of 41. Cyanide poisoning was established as the cause of death. When his body was discovered, an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed, and although the apple was not tested for cyanide, it was speculated that this was the means by which Turing had consumed a fatal dose. An inquest determined that he had committed suicide. Andrew Hodges and another biographer, David Leavitt, have both speculated that Turing was re-enacting a scene from the Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), his favourite fairy tale. Both men noted that (in Leavitt's words) he took "an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew". and Turing's remains were cremated at Woking Crematorium on 12 June 1954, and his ashes were scattered in the gardens of the crematorium, just as his father's had been. − − = = 死亡 = = 1954年6月8日，在他位于威姆斯洛 Adlington Road 43号的家中，图灵的管家发现了他的尸体。他前一天去世，享年41岁。氰化物中毒被确定为死因。当他的尸体被发现时，一个吃了一半的苹果躺在他的床边，尽管这个苹果没有被检测出氰化物，但人们推测这是图灵服用致命剂量的方式。审讯确定他是自杀的。安德鲁•霍奇斯和另一位传记作家大卫•利维特都推测，图灵是在重演华特•迪士尼(Walt Disney)电影《白雪公主和七个小矮人(1937)中的一个场景，这是他最喜欢的童话故事。两人都指出，(用莱维特的话说)他“特别喜欢看到邪恶皇后把苹果浸入有毒的水中的场景”。图灵的遗体于1954年6月12日在 Woking Crematorium 火化，他的骨灰撒在火葬场的花园里，就像他父亲那样。 − − Philosopher [[Jack Copeland]] has questioned various aspects of the coroner's historical verdict. He suggested an alternative explanation for the cause of Turing's death: the accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus used to [[electroplating|electroplate]] gold onto spoons. The [[potassium cyanide]] was used to [[Gold#Commercial chemistry|dissolve the gold]]. Turing had such an apparatus set up in his tiny spare room. Copeland noted that the autopsy findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison. Turing also habitually ate an apple before going to bed, and it was not unusual for the apple to be discarded half-eaten.<ref name = "Copeland">{{cite news | first = Roland | last = Pease | title = Alan Turing: Inquest's suicide verdict 'not supportable' | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18561092 | work = [[BBC News]] | date = 23 June 2012 | access-date = 23 June 2012 | quote = We have ... been recreating the narrative of Turing's life, and we have recreated him as an unhappy young man who committed suicide. But the evidence is not there. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120623101625/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18561092 | archive-date = 23 June 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref> Furthermore, Turing had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment (which had been discontinued a year previously) "with good humour" and had shown no sign of despondency prior to his death. He even set down a list of tasks that he intended to complete upon returning to his office after the holiday weekend.<ref name = "Copeland"/> Turing's mother believed that the ingestion was accidental, resulting from her son's careless storage of laboratory chemicals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=5685694 |title=TURING, Ethel Sara (1881–1976, mother of Alan Turing). Series of 11 autograph letters to Robin Gandy, Guilford, 28 July 1954 – 11 June 1971 (most before 1959), altogether 29 pages, 8vo (2 letters dated 17 May and 26 May 1955 incomplete, lacking continuation leaves, occasional light soiling) |website=christies.com |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015923/https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=5685694 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Biographer Andrew Hodges theorised that Turing arranged the delivery of the equipment to deliberately allow his mother [[plausible deniability]] with regard to any suicide claims.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hodges|1983|pp=488, 489}}</ref> − [[File:Alan Turing OBE.jpg|thumb|Turing's OBE currently held in [[Sherborne School]] archives]] − − Philosopher Jack Copeland has questioned various aspects of the coroner's historical verdict. He suggested an alternative explanation for the cause of Turing's death: the accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus used to electroplate gold onto spoons. The potassium cyanide was used to dissolve the gold. Turing had such an apparatus set up in his tiny spare room. Copeland noted that the autopsy findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison. Turing also habitually ate an apple before going to bed, and it was not unusual for the apple to be discarded half-eaten. Furthermore, Turing had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment (which had been discontinued a year previously) "with good humour" and had shown no sign of despondency prior to his death. He even set down a list of tasks that he intended to complete upon returning to his office after the holiday weekend. Turing's mother believed that the ingestion was accidental, resulting from her son's careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Biographer Andrew Hodges theorised that Turing arranged the delivery of the equipment to deliberately allow his mother plausible deniability with regard to any suicide claims. − − − 哲学家杰克 · 科普兰对验尸官的历史裁决提出了各种各样的质疑。对于图灵的死因，他提出了另一种解释: 一个用于电镀金子的器具意外吸入了氰化物烟雾到勺子上。氰化钾是用来溶解黄金的。图灵在他狭小的空余房间里安装了这样一台仪器。科普兰指出，尸检结果更符合吸入而不是摄入毒药。图灵还习惯在睡觉前吃一个苹果，吃了一半就丢弃这个苹果并不罕见。此外，据报道，图灵“幽默地”承受了法律上的挫折和激素治疗(一年前已经停止) ，而且在他去世之前没有显示出任何沮丧的迹象。他甚至列出了一个任务清单，打算在假日周末回到办公室后完成这些任务。图灵的母亲认为，由于儿子粗心地储存了实验室化学品，图灵的摄入是意外的。传记作家 Andrew Hodges 提出理论，图灵安排了这些设备的交付，故意让他的母亲对任何自杀的声明有似是而非的否认。 − − It has been suggested that Turing's belief in [[fortune-telling]] may have caused his depressed mood.<ref name="hodges2012" /> As a youth, Turing had been told by a fortune-teller that he would be a genius. In mid-May 1954, shortly before his death, Turing again decided to consult a fortune-teller during a day-trip to [[Lytham St Annes|St Annes-on-Sea]] with the Greenbaum family.<ref name="hodges2012"/> According to the Greenbaums' daughter, Barbara:<ref name="dowd">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27701207 |title=What was Alan Turing really like? |author=Vincent Dowd |publisher=BBC |date=6 June 2014 |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117020715/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27701207 |archive-date=17 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> − <blockquote> − But it was a lovely sunny day and Alan was in a cheerful mood and off we went... Then he thought it would be a good idea to go to the [[Blackpool Pleasure Beach|Pleasure Beach at Blackpool]]. We found a fortune-teller's tent[,] and Alan said he'd like to go in[,] so we waited around for him to come back... And this sunny, cheerful visage had shrunk into a pale, shaking, horror-stricken face. Something had happened. We don't know what the fortune-teller said[,] but he obviously was deeply unhappy. I think that was probably the last time we saw him before we heard of his suicide. − </blockquote> − − It has been suggested that Turing's belief in fortune-telling may have caused his depressed mood. As a youth, Turing had been told by a fortune-teller that he would be a genius. In mid-May 1954, shortly before his death, Turing again decided to consult a fortune-teller during a day-trip to St Annes-on-Sea with the Greenbaum family. According to the Greenbaums' daughter, Barbara: − − But it was a lovely sunny day and Alan was in a cheerful mood and off we went... Then he thought it would be a good idea to go to the Pleasure Beach at Blackpool. We found a fortune-teller's tent[,] and Alan said he'd like to go in[,] so we waited around for him to come back... And this sunny, cheerful visage had shrunk into a pale, shaking, horror-stricken face. Something had happened. We don't know what the fortune-teller said[,] but he obviously was deeply unhappy. I think that was probably the last time we saw him before we heard of his suicide. − − − 有人认为，可能是图灵对算命的信仰导致了他的沮丧情绪。年轻时，图灵曾被算命师告知他将成为一个天才。1954年5月中旬，在他去世前不久，图灵在与格林鲍姆一家一起去海上圣安内斯的一日游中再次决定咨询算命师。根据格林鲍姆夫妇的女儿芭芭拉的说法: 但那是一个阳光明媚的日子，艾伦心情愉快，我们就去了... ... 然后他觉得去黑潭的快乐海滩是个好主意。我们找到了一个算命师的帐篷，艾伦说他想进去，所以我们就在附近等他回来... ... 这张阳光明媚的面孔已经缩成了一张苍白、颤抖、惊恐的脸。发生了一些事情。我们不知道算命先生是怎么说的，但是他显然非常不开心。我想那可能是我们听说他自杀之前最后一次见到他。 − − ===Government apology and pardon=== − {{anchor|Government apology and pardon support}} − In August 2009, British programmer [[John Graham-Cumming]] started a petition urging the British government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a homosexual.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Thousands call for Turing apology |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8226509.stm |work=BBC News |date=31 August 2009 |access-date=31 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831100747/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8226509.stm |archive-date=31 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Petition seeks apology for Enigma code-breaker Turing |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/09/01/alan.turing.petition/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=1 September 2009 |access-date=1 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005081407/http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/09/01/alan.turing.petition/index.html |archive-date=5 October 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> The petition received more than 30,000 signatures.<ref name="PMapology"/><ref>The petition was only open to UK citizens.</ref> The Prime Minister, [[Gordon Brown]], acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as "appalling":<ref name="PMapology">{{cite news | title = PM's apology to codebreaker Alan Turing: we were inhumane | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/11/pm-apology-to-alan-turing | work = The Guardian | location = UK | date = 11 September 2009 | first = Caroline | last = Davies | access-date = 10 December 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170204085908/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/11/pm-apology-to-alan-turing | archive-date = 4 February 2017 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="PM-apology">{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8249792.stm | title = PM apology after Turing petition | date = 11 September 2009 | work = BBC News | access-date = 11 September 2009 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/67yu9WGUa?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8249792.stm | archive-date = 27 May 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref> − {{blockquote|Thousands of people have come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and recognition of the appalling way he was treated. While Turing was dealt with under the law of the time and we can't put the clock back, his treatment was of course utterly unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I and we all are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government, and all those who live freely thanks to Alan's work I am very proud to say: we're sorry, you deserved so much better.<ref name="PMapology"/><ref>[http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~ian/TuringApology.html Full text of the Prime Minister's apology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109124247/http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~ian/TuringApology.html |date=9 November 2012 }}.</ref>}} − − − In August 2009, British programmer John Graham-Cumming started a petition urging the British government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a homosexual. The petition received more than 30,000 signatures.The petition was only open to UK citizens. The Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as "appalling": − − − 2009年8月，英国程序员 John Graham-Cumming · 图灵发起请愿，敦促英国政府为图灵作为同性恋被起诉一事道歉。请愿书收到了超过30000个签名。请愿书只对英国公民开放。英国首相戈登 · 布朗承认了这份请愿书，并于2009年9月10日发表了一份声明，对图灵受到的待遇表示道歉，并称其“骇人听闻”: − − In December 2011, William Jones and his Member of Parliament, [[John Leech (politician)|John Leech]], created an [[e-petition]]<ref name="PardonPetition">{{cite web | title = Grant a pardon to Alan Turing | url = https://submissions.epetitions.direct.gov.uk/petitions/23526 | date = 6 December 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120110183548/http://submissions.epetitions.direct.gov.uk/petitions/23526 | archive-date = 10 January 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> requesting that the British government [[pardon]] Turing for his conviction of "gross indecency":<ref name="BBBCPardon">{{cite news | title = Petition to pardon computer pioneer Alan Turing started | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-16061279 | date = 6 December 2011 | work = BBC News | access-date = 21 June 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180619135127/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-16061279 | archive-date = 19 June 2018 | url-status = live }}</ref> − {{blockquote|We ask the HM Government to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of "gross indecency". In 1952, he was convicted of "gross indecency" with another man and was forced to undergo so-called "organo-therapy"—chemical castration. Two years later, he killed himself with cyanide, aged just 41. Alan Turing was driven to a terrible despair and early death by the nation he'd done so much to save. This remains a shame on the British government and British history. A pardon can go some way to healing this damage. It may act as an apology to many of the other gay men, not as well-known as Alan Turing, who were subjected to these laws.<ref name="PardonPetition" />}} − − In December 2011, William Jones and his Member of Parliament, John Leech, created an e-petition requesting that the British government pardon Turing for his conviction of "gross indecency": − − − 2011年12月，威廉 · 琼斯和他的议员约翰 · 利奇发起了一项电子请愿活动，要求英国政府赦免图灵的“严重猥亵”罪: − − The petition gathered over 37,000 signatures,<ref name=PardonPetition /><ref name=turingindependent24dec2013>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/alan-turing-gets-his-royal-pardon-for-gross-indecency--61-years-after-he-poisoned-himself-9023116.html |title=Alan Turing gets his royal pardon for 'gross indecency' – 61 years after he poisoned himself |work=The Independent |date=23 December 2013 |author=Wright, Oliver |location=London |access-date=21 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224035745/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/alan-turing-gets-his-royal-pardon-for-gross-indecency--61-years-after-he-poisoned-himself-9023116.html |archive-date=24 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and was submitted to Parliament by the Manchester MP [[John Leech (politician)|John Leech]] but the request was discouraged by Justice Minister [[Tom McNally, Baron McNally#Political career|Lord McNally]], who said:<ref name="PardonPetitionDiscouraged">{{cite web |title=Government rejects a pardon for computer genius Alan Turing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2012/feb/07/alan-turing-pardon-lord-mcnally-lord-sharkey-computers |date=7 February 2012 |last=Wainwright |first=Martin |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204091026/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2012/feb/07/alan-turing-pardon-lord-mcnally-lord-sharkey-computers |archive-date=4 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> − {{blockquote|A posthumous pardon was not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly convicted of what at the time was a criminal offence. He would have known that his offence was against the law and that he would be prosecuted. It is tragic that Alan Turing was convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and absurd—particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war effort. However, the law at the time required a prosecution and, as such, long-standing policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and, rather than trying to alter the historical context and to put right what cannot be put right, ensure instead that we never again return to those times.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201212/ldhansrd/text/120202w0001.htm |title=hansard |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706132556/https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201212/ldhansrd/text/120202w0001.htm |archive-date=6 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} − − The petition gathered over 37,000 signatures, and was submitted to Parliament by the Manchester MP John Leech but the request was discouraged by Justice Minister Lord McNally, who said: − − − 这份请愿书收集了超过37000个签名，由曼彻斯特议员约翰 · 利奇提交给议会，但是司法部长麦克纳利勋爵不同意这一请求，他说: − − [[John Leech (politician)|John Leech]], the MP for [[Manchester Withington (UK Parliament constituency)|Manchester Withington]] (2005–15), submitted several bills to Parliament<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2013/12/24/better-late-than-never-alan-turing-is-finally-pardoned|title=Better late than never, Alan Turing is finally pardoned|first=Alex|last=Stevenson|date=24 December 2013|publisher=politics.co.uk|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816015157/http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2013/12/24/better-late-than-never-alan-turing-is-finally-pardoned|archive-date=16 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and led a high-profile campaign to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was "ultimately just embarrassing" that the conviction still stood.<ref name="Fitzgerald">{{cite web|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/alan-turings-court-convictions-go-11931942|title=Alan Turing's court convictions go on display for the first time|first=Todd|last=Fitzgerald|date=24 September 2016|publisher=manchestereveningnews.co.uk|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925151625/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/alan-turings-court-convictions-go-11931942|archive-date=25 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Leech continued to take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years, gaining the public support of numerous leading scientists, including [[Stephen Hawking]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-codebreaker-alan-turing-pardoned-6442836|title=Alan Turing pardoned by The Queen for his 'unjust and discriminatory' conviction for homosexuality|last=Britton|first=Paul|work=Manchester Evening News|date=24 December 2013|access-date=24 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624204418/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-codebreaker-alan-turing-pardoned-6442836|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-16833621|title=MP calls for pardon for computer pioneer Alan Turing|date=1 February 2012|work=BBC News|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702135251/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-16833621|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> At the British premiere of a film based on Turing's life, ''[[The Imitation Game]]'', the producers thanked Leech for bringing the topic to public attention and securing Turing's pardon.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.libdemvoice.org/my-proudest-day-as-a-liberal-democrat-43430.html|title=My proudest day as a Liberal Democrat|work=Liberal Democrat Voice|access-date=24 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624204354/https://www.libdemvoice.org/my-proudest-day-as-a-liberal-democrat-43430.html|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Leech is now regularly described as the "architect" of Turing's pardon and subsequently the Alan Turing Law which went on to secure pardons for 75,000 other men and women convicted of similar crimes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-computer-pioneer-alan-turing-16585966 |title=Manchester computer pioneer Alan Turing announced as face of new £50 note |date=15 July 2019 |access-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719082039/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/manchester-computer-pioneer-alan-turing-16585966 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://outnewsglobal.com/john-leech-secures-historic-deal-with-government-on-alan-turing-law/|title=John Leech secures historic deal with Government on 'Alan Turing Law'|date=20 October 2016|website=outnewsglobal.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jul/15/alan-turing-to-feature-on-new-50-note|title=Alan Turing to feature on new £50 banknote|editor-first1=Larry|editor-last1=Elliott|editor-first2=Josh|editor-last2=Halliday|date=15 July 2019|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/tory-minister-refuses-apologise-killing-9108424|title=Tory refuses to apologise for 'killing bad law' pardoning thousands of gay men|first=Dan|last=Bloom|date=23 October 2016|website=mirror}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dunfermlinepress.com/news/national-news/17771381.alan-turings-fearless-approach-problems-intellectual-curiosity-praised/|title=Alan Turing's 'fearless approach to problems and intellectual curiosity' praised|website=Dunfermline Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thetab.com/uk/manchester/2017/01/31/alan-turing-law-finally-pardons-thousands-unfairly-convicted-25615|title=The Alan Turing Law finally pardons thousands of unfairly convicted gay and bisexual men|date=31 January 2017|website=University of Manchester}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qnews.com.au/bank-of-england-honours-alan-turing-on-50-note/|title=Bank of England honours Alan Turing on £50 note|date=15 July 2019|website=QNews}}</ref> − − John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), submitted several bills to Parliament and led a high-profile campaign to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was "ultimately just embarrassing" that the conviction still stood. Leech continued to take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years, gaining the public support of numerous leading scientists, including Stephen Hawking. At the British premiere of a film based on Turing's life, The Imitation Game, the producers thanked Leech for bringing the topic to public attention and securing Turing's pardon. Leech is now regularly described as the "architect" of Turing's pardon and subsequently the Alan Turing Law which went on to secure pardons for 75,000 other men and women convicted of similar crimes. − − 曼彻斯特威辛顿(英国国会选区)议员 John Leech (2005-15)向议会提交了几项法案，并领导了一场引人注目的运动以确保赦免。利奇在《英国下议院表示，图灵对战争的贡献使他成为了一个民族英雄，而且他的信念仍然存在，这“最终只是令人尴尬”。利奇继续在议会通过该法案，并进行了数年的竞选活动，赢得了包括斯蒂芬 · 霍金在内的众多顶尖科学家的公众支持。在一部根据图灵生平改编的电影---- 《模仿游戏的英国首映式上，制片人感谢 Leech 将这个话题引入公众视野，并确保了图灵的赦免。利奇现在经常被描述为图灵赦免和随后的阿兰图灵法案的“设计师”，该法案确保了对其他75000名被判定犯有类似罪行的男女的赦免。 − − On 26 July 2012, a bill was introduced in the [[British House of Lords|House of Lords]] to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2012-13/alanturingstatutorypardon.html |title=Bill |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |date=26 July 2012 |access-date=31 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102040318/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2012-13/alanturingstatutorypardon.html |archive-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Late in the year in a letter to ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the [[Astronomer Royal]] [[Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow|Lord Rees]], [[List of presidents of the Royal Society|President of the Royal Society]] Sir [[Paul Nurse]], [[Jean Barker, Baroness Trumpington|Lady Trumpington]] (who worked for Turing during the war) and [[John Sharkey, Baron Sharkey|Lord Sharkey]] (the bill's sponsor) called on Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] to act on the pardon request.<ref>Pearse, Damian, [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/dec/14/alan-turing-pardon-stephen-hawking "Alan Turing should be pardoned, argue Stephen Hawking and top scientists"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204090812/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/dec/14/alan-turing-pardon-stephen-hawking |date=4 February 2017 }}, ''The Guardian'', 13 December 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2012.</ref> The government indicated it would support the bill,<ref name=turingguardian19july2013>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/jul/19/enigma-codebreaker-alan-turing-posthumous-pardon|title=Enigma codebreaker Alan Turing to be given posthumous pardon|work=The Guardian|date=19 July 2013|author=Watt, Nicholas|location=London|access-date=10 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104124001/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/jul/19/enigma-codebreaker-alan-turing-posthumous-pardon|archive-date=4 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2302744/alan-turing-pardon-moves-a-step-closer|title=Alan Turing pardon sails through House of Lords|last=Worth|first=Dan|date=30 October 2013|publisher=V3|access-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114746/http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2302744/alan-turing-pardon-moves-a-step-closer|archive-date=24 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Alan Turing (Statutory Pardon) Bill | url =http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2013-14/alanturingstatutorypardon.html | access-date =20 July 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130705084023/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2013-14/alanturingstatutorypardon.html | archive-date =5 July 2013 | url-status =live }}</ref> and it passed its third reading in the House of Lords in October.<ref name=turingpinknewsdec2013>{{cite news|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/12/02/lib-dem-mp-john-leech-disappointed-at-delay-to-alan-turing-pardon-bill|title=Lib Dem MP John Leech disappointed at delay to Alan Turing pardon bill|newspaper=Pink News|date=2 December 2013|author=Roberts, Scott|access-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225050250/http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/12/02/lib-dem-mp-john-leech-disappointed-at-delay-to-alan-turing-pardon-bill|archive-date=25 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> − − On 26 July 2012, a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952. Late in the year in a letter to The Daily Telegraph, the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpington (who worked for Turing during the war) and Lord Sharkey (the bill's sponsor) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request.Pearse, Damian, "Alan Turing should be pardoned, argue Stephen Hawking and top scientists" , The Guardian, 13 December 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2012. The government indicated it would support the bill, and it passed its third reading in the House of Lords in October. − − 2012年7月26日，上议院提交了一项法案，根据《1885年刑事修正法令11条对图灵的罪行给予法定赦免，图灵于1952年3月31日被判有罪。今年年底，物理学家斯蒂芬 · 霍金和其他10位签名者，包括每日电讯报皇家天文学家勋爵 Rees，皇家学会主席 Paul Nurse 爵士，战时为图灵工作的 Trumpington 女士，以及法案的发起人 Sharkey 勋爵，在一封信中呼吁首相 David Cameron 对赦免请求采取行动。皮尔斯，达米安，“斯蒂芬 · 霍金和顶尖科学家认为，阿兰 · 图灵应该被赦免”，《卫报》 ，2012年12月13日。2012年12月15日。政府表示将支持该法案，并于10月在上议院通过了三读。 − − At the bill's second reading in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] on 29 November 2013, Conservative MP [[Christopher Chope]] objected to the bill, delaying its passage. The bill was due to return to the House of Commons on 28 February 2014,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/12/02/lib-dem-mp-john-leech-disappointed-at-delay-to-alan-turing-pardon-bill/|title=Lib Dem MP John Leech disappointed at delay to Alan Turing pardon bill|last=Roberts|first=Scott|date=2 December 2013|work=PinkNews|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612210914/https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/12/02/lib-dem-mp-john-leech-disappointed-at-delay-to-alan-turing-pardon-bill/|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> but before the bill could be debated in the House of Commons,<ref>{{cite web | title =Alan Turing (Statutory Pardon) Bill | url =http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2013-14/alanturingstatutorypardon.html | access-date =24 December 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131102040315/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2013-14/alanturingstatutorypardon.html | archive-date =2 November 2013 | url-status =live }}</ref> the government elected to proceed under the [[royal prerogative of mercy]]. On 24 December 2013, [[Queen Elizabeth II]] signed a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency", with immediate effect.<ref name=turingpardon24dec2013>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/10536246/Alan-Turing-granted-Royal-pardon-by-the-Queen.html |title=Alan Turing granted Royal pardon by the Queen |last=Swinford |first=Steven |date=23 December 2013 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502103553/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/10536246/Alan-Turing-granted-Royal-pardon-by-the-Queen.html |archive-date=2 May 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Announcing the pardon, Lord Chancellor [[Chris Grayling]] said Turing deserved to be "remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort" and not for his later criminal conviction.<ref name=turingindependent24dec2013 /><ref name="BBC-pardon24Dec">{{cite news|title=Royal pardon for codebreaker Alan Turing|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-25495315|access-date=24 December 2013|work=BBC News|date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224002121/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-25495315|archive-date=24 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.advocate.com/world/2014/08/22/queens-decree-alan-turing-now-officially-pardoned|title=With Queen's Decree, Alan Turing Is Now Officially Pardoned|date=22 August 2014|publisher=Advocate.com|access-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101212528/http://www.advocate.com/world/2014/08/22/queens-decree-alan-turing-now-officially-pardoned|archive-date=1 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The Queen's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War.<ref>Pardoned: Alan Turing, Computing patriarch. ''Time'' Magazine, vol. 183, no. 1, 13 January 2014, p. 14. Retrieved 6 January 2014.</ref> Pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request has been made by the family or other interested party; neither condition was met in regard to Turing's conviction.<ref name = grauniad>{{Cite news | last =Davies | first =Caroline | title = Codebreaker Turing is given posthumous royal pardon | newspaper =The Guardian | location =London | pages =1, 6 | date =24 December 2013 }}</ref> − − At the bill's second reading in the House of Commons on 29 November 2013, Conservative MP Christopher Chope objected to the bill, delaying its passage. The bill was due to return to the House of Commons on 28 February 2014, but before the bill could be debated in the House of Commons, the government elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy. On 24 December 2013, Queen Elizabeth II signed a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency", with immediate effect. Announcing the pardon, Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling said Turing deserved to be "remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort" and not for his later criminal conviction. The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014. The Queen's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War.Pardoned: Alan Turing, Computing patriarch. Time Magazine, vol. 183, no. 1, 13 January 2014, p. 14. Retrieved 6 January 2014. Pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request has been made by the family or other interested party; neither condition was met in regard to Turing's conviction. − − 2013年11月29日，该法案在英国下议院进行二读，保守党议员克里斯多福·乔普反对该法案，延迟了其通过。该法案原定于2014年2月28日返回英国下议院，但在该法案可能在英国下议院辩论之前，政府选择在皇家特权宽恕下继续进行。2013年12月24日，伊丽莎白二世签署了一项赦免令，赦免图灵的“严重猥亵罪”，并立即生效。大法官克里斯 · 格雷林在宣布赦免时说，图灵应该“因为他对战争的杰出贡献而被人们铭记和认可”，而不是因为他后来的刑事定罪。2014年8月，女王正式宣布图灵获得赦免。女王的行动是第二次世界大战结束以来第四次皇家赦免。原谅: 阿兰 · 图灵，计算机领袖。时代杂志，第一卷。183号，不。1, 13 January 2014, p. 14.2014年1月6日。特赦通常只有在当事人在技术上是无辜的，而且家人或其他利益相关方已经提出请求的情况下才会被批准; 对于图灵的定罪，这两个条件都没有满足。 − − In September 2016, the government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was described as an "[[Alan Turing law]]".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-37436417|title=Government 'committed' to Alan Turing gay pardon law|date=22 September 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922041224/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-37436417|archive-date=22 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-may-committed-to-introducing-alan-turing-law-and-pardon-gay-men-convicted-of-outdated-crimes-a7320851.html|title=Theresa May committed to introducing the 'Alan Turing Law'|last=Cowburn|first=Ashley|date=21 September 2016|website=The Independent|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922133219/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-may-committed-to-introducing-alan-turing-law-and-pardon-gay-men-convicted-of-outdated-crimes-a7320851.html|archive-date=22 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Alan Turing law]] is now an informal term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the [[Policing and Crime Act 2017]], which serves as an [[amnesty law]] to retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and Wales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/3/section/182/data.htm|title=Policing and Crime Act 2017|first=Expert|last=Participation|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305145933/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/3/section/182/data.htm|archive-date=5 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> − − In September 2016, the government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was described as an "Alan Turing law". The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as an amnesty law to retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and Wales. − − 2016年9月，政府宣布打算将这种追溯性免罪扩大到其他被判犯有类似历史猥亵罪的男子，这项法律被称为“阿兰 · 图灵法”。阿兰 · 图灵法现在是英国法律的一个非正式术语，载于《2017年警务和犯罪法》 ，该法是一项大赦法，旨在追溯赦免那些根据历史立法被警告或定罪的男子，这些立法禁止同性恋行为。这项法律适用于英格兰和威尔士。 − − ==Legacy== − {{main|Legacy of Alan Turing}} − {{see also|List of things named after Alan Turing}} − − ===Awards, honours, and tributes=== − [[File:Alan Turing Building 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Alan Turing Building]] at the University of Manchester in 2008]] − Turing was appointed an officer of the [[Order of the British Empire]] in 1946.<ref name="thegazette.co.uk"/> He was also elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1951|Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)]] in 1951.<ref name="frs"/> − − − Turing was appointed an officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1946. He was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1951. − − 图灵于一九四六年被任命为大英帝国勋章的军官。1951年，他还被选为英国皇家学会会员。 − − Turing has been honoured in various ways in [[Manchester]], the city where he worked towards the end of his life. In 1994, a stretch of the [[A6010 road]] (the [[Manchester]] city intermediate ring road) was named "Alan Turing Way". A bridge carrying this road was widened, and carries the name Alan Turing Bridge. A [[Alan Turing Memorial|statue of Turing]] was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001 in [[Sackville Park]], between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and [[Canal Street, Manchester|Canal Street]]. The memorial statue depicts the "father of computer science" sitting on a bench at a central position in the park. Turing is shown holding an apple. The cast bronze bench carries in relief the text 'Alan Mathison Turing 1912–1954', and the motto 'Founder of Computer Science' as it could appear if encoded by an [[Enigma machine]]: 'IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ'. However, the meaning of the coded message is disputed, as the 'u' in 'computer' matches up with the 'u' in 'ADXUO'. As a letter encoded by an enigma machine cannot appear as itself, the actual message behind the code is uncertain.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://benosteen.wordpress.com/2010/09/23/what-does-the-code-on-the-alan-turing-memorial-actually-say/|title=What does the code on the Alan Turing Memorial actually say?|date=23 September 2010|work=Random Hacks|access-date=28 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628125202/https://benosteen.wordpress.com/2010/09/23/what-does-the-code-on-the-alan-turing-memorial-actually-say/|archive-date=28 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> − [[File:Sackville Park Turing plaque.jpg|thumb|right|Turing memorial statue plaque in [[Sackville Park]], Manchester]] − A plaque at the statue's feet reads 'Father of computer science, mathematician, logician, wartime codebreaker, victim of prejudice'. There is also a [[Bertrand Russell]] quotation: "Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty—a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture." The sculptor buried his own old [[Amstrad]] computer under the [[plinth]] as a tribute to "the godfather of all modern computers".<ref name="computerburied">{{cite news | url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/computer-buried-in-tribute-to-genius-1186583 | title=Computer buried in tribute to genius | work=Manchester Evening News | date=17 February 2007 | access-date=7 December 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104022559/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/computer-buried-in-tribute-to-genius-1186583 | archive-date=4 November 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> − − Turing has been honoured in various ways in Manchester, the city where he worked towards the end of his life. In 1994, a stretch of the A6010 road (the Manchester city intermediate ring road) was named "Alan Turing Way". A bridge carrying this road was widened, and carries the name Alan Turing Bridge. A statue of Turing was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001 in Sackville Park, between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and Canal Street. The memorial statue depicts the "father of computer science" sitting on a bench at a central position in the park. Turing is shown holding an apple. The cast bronze bench carries in relief the text 'Alan Mathison Turing 1912–1954', and the motto 'Founder of Computer Science' as it could appear if encoded by an Enigma machine: 'IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ'. However, the meaning of the coded message is disputed, as the 'u' in 'computer' matches up with the 'u' in 'ADXUO'. As a letter encoded by an enigma machine cannot appear as itself, the actual message behind the code is uncertain. − − A plaque at the statue's feet reads 'Father of computer science, mathematician, logician, wartime codebreaker, victim of prejudice'. There is also a Bertrand Russell quotation: "Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty—a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture." The sculptor buried his own old Amstrad computer under the plinth as a tribute to "the godfather of all modern computers". − − 图灵在曼彻斯特以各种方式获得了荣誉，他在这座城市工作直到生命的尽头。1994年，一段 a6010公路(曼彻斯特市中环线)被命名为“阿兰 · 图灵路”。一座承载着这条道路的桥梁被拓宽了，桥名为阿兰 · 图灵桥。图灵的雕像于2001年6月23日在 Sackville Park 揭幕，位于 Whitworth Street and Canal Street 的曼彻斯特大学大楼之间。纪念雕像描绘了“计算机科学之父”坐在公园中央的长椅上。图灵手里拿着一个苹果。铸造的青铜长凳上浮雕着文字‘艾伦·图灵1912-1954’，还有座右铭‘计算机科学的创始人’，如果用英格玛机器进行编码的话: ‘ IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO kvkkzc GUBJ’。然而，编码信息的含义是有争议的，因为“ computer”中的“ u”与“ adxeo”中的“ u”匹配。由于一封由英格玛密码机编码的信件不能以本身的形式出现，因此密码背后的真实信息是不确定的。雕像脚下的一块牌匾上写着“计算机科学之父、数学家、逻辑学家、战时密码破译者、偏见的受害者”。还有一句伯特兰·罗素: “正确地看待数学，它不仅拥有真理，而且拥有至高无上的美ーー一种冷峻的美，就像雕塑一样。”雕塑家把他自己的老 Amstrad 电脑埋在底座下，以此向“现代电脑之父”致敬。 − − In 1999, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine named Turing as one of the [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|100 Most Important People of the 20th century]] and stated, "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine."<ref name=AFP>{{cite news |title=Alan Turing – Time 100 People of the Century |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html |work=Time |quote=Providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer. The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine. |first=Paul |last=Gray |date=29 March 1999 |access-date=10 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119181237/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html |archive-date=19 January 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> − − In 1999, Time magazine named Turing as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and stated, "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine." − − 1999年，《时代》(Time)杂志将图灵评为20世纪最重要的100人之一，并表示: “事实上，每个敲击键盘、打开电子表格或文字处理程序的人，都在开发图灵机的化身。” − − A blue plaque was unveiled at King's College on the centenary of his birth on 23 June 2012 and is now installed at the college's Keynes Building on King's Parade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2012/turing-plaque.html|title=Blue plaque to commemorate Alan Turing|publisher=King's College, Cambridge|access-date=8 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207025216/http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2012/turing-plaque.html|archive-date=7 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2012/turing-plaque-fixed-place.html|title=Turing plaque fixed in place|publisher=[[King's College, Cambridge]]|access-date=8 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209124354/http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2012/turing-plaque-fixed-place.html|archive-date=9 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> − − A blue plaque was unveiled at King's College on the centenary of his birth on 23 June 2012 and is now installed at the college's Keynes Building on King's Parade. − − 2012年6月23日，为了纪念他的百年诞辰，一块蓝色的牌匾在国王学院揭幕，现已安放在国王游行的 Keynes Building。 − − On 25 March 2021, the [[Bank of England]] publicly unveiled the design for a new [[Bank of England £50 note|£50 note]], featuring Turing's portrait, before its official issue on 23 June, Turing's birthday. Turing was selected as the new face of the note in 2019 following a public nomination process.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pylas |first1=Pan |title=WWII codebreaker Alan Turing honored on new UK bank note |url=https://apnews.com/article/world-news-england-jane-austen-london-winston-churchill-d965076529b70fc8dbb020d364d88176 |access-date=25 March 2021 |work=AP News |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=25 March 2021}}</ref> − − On 25 March 2021, the Bank of England publicly unveiled the design for a new £50 note, featuring Turing's portrait, before its official issue on 23 June, Turing's birthday. Turing was selected as the new face of the note in 2019 following a public nomination process. − − 2021年3月25日，英格兰银行在6月23日图灵的生日正式发行之前，公开披露了新版50英镑的设计，上面印有图灵的肖像。2019年，图灵经过公开的提名程序被选为该笔记的新面孔。 − − ===Centenary celebrations=== − {{main|Alan Turing Year}} − − To mark the 100th anniversary of Turing's birth, the Turing Centenary Advisory Committee (TCAC) co-ordinated the [[Alan Turing Year]], a year-long programme of events around the world honouring Turing's life and achievements. The TCAC, chaired by [[S. Barry Cooper]] with Turing's nephew Sir John Dermot Turing acting as Honorary President, worked with the University of Manchester faculty members and a broad spectrum of people from Cambridge University and [[Bletchley Park]]. − {{-}} − − To mark the 100th anniversary of Turing's birth, the Turing Centenary Advisory Committee (TCAC) co-ordinated the Alan Turing Year, a year-long programme of events around the world honouring Turing's life and achievements. The TCAC, chaired by S. Barry Cooper with Turing's nephew Sir John Dermot Turing acting as Honorary President, worked with the University of Manchester faculty members and a broad spectrum of people from Cambridge University and Bletchley Park. − − − 为纪念图灵诞辰100周年，图灵百周年纪念顾问委员会(TCAC)举办了为期一年的「图灵年」活动，在世界各地举办活动，向图灵的一生和成就致敬。由 s. Barry Cooper 担任主席，图灵的侄子 John Dermot Turing 爵士担任荣誉主席，与曼彻斯特大学的教职员工以及剑桥大学和 Bletchley Park 的广泛人士一起工作。 − − === Steel sculpture controversy === − In May 2020 it was reported by ''[[Gay Star News]]'' that a {{convert|12|foot|adj=on}} high steel sculpture, to honour Turing, designed by Sir [[Antony Gormley]], was planned to be installed at [[King's College, Cambridge]]. [[Historic England]], however, was quoted as saying that the abstract work of 19 steel slabs "... would be at odds with the existing character of the College. This would result in harm, of a less than substantial nature, to the significance of the [[listed building]]s and landscape, and by extension the conservation area."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/heritage-watchdog-objects-to-statue-of-gay-hero-alan-turing-at-kings-college-cambridge/ |title=Heritage watchdog objects to statue of gay hero Alan Turing at Kings College Cambridge |first=Tris |last=Reid-Smith |date=1 May 2020 |website=Gay Star News |access-date=8 May 2020}}</ref> − − In May 2020 it was reported by Gay Star News that a high steel sculpture, to honour Turing, designed by Sir Antony Gormley, was planned to be installed at King's College, Cambridge. Historic England, however, was quoted as saying that the abstract work of 19 steel slabs "... would be at odds with the existing character of the College. This would result in harm, of a less than substantial nature, to the significance of the listed buildings and landscape, and by extension the conservation area." − − 2020年5月，据《同志之星新闻》报道，为了纪念图灵，安东尼 · 葛姆雷爵士设计了一座高大的钢制雕塑，计划安装在剑桥国王学院。历史上的英格兰，然而，援引说，抽象的工作，19钢板“ ... 将与现有的学院性质不一致。这将对所列建筑物和景观的重要性造成损害，并扩大保护区的范围。” − − ==References== − {{Reflist|30em}} − − ===Sources=== − {{Refbegin|30em}} − * {{Cite book | last = Agar | first = Jon | title = Turing and the Universal Machine | location = Duxford | publisher=Icon | year=2001 | isbn = 978-1-84046-250-0 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Agar | first = Jon | title = The government machine: a revolutionary history of the computer | publisher=MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-262-01202-7 }} − * {{Cite web | last = Alexander | first = C. Hugh O'D. | author-link = Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander (circa 1945) | title = Cryptographic History of Work on the German Naval Enigma | url = http://www.ellsbury.com/gne/gne-000.htm | publisher=The National Archives, Kew, Reference HW 25/1 | ref = {{harvid|Alexander|circa 1945}}}} − * {{cite book |last=Beavers |first=Anthony |editor1-first=S. Barry |editor1-last=Cooper|editor2-first=Jan |editor2-last=van Leeuwen |title=Alan Turing: His Work and Impact |publisher=Elsevier |location=Waltham |year=2013 |pages=481–485 |chapter=Alan Turing: Mathematical Mechanist |isbn=978-0-12-386980-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C9WQbm4ovFoC&pg=PA481 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Beniger | first = James | author-link = James R. Beniger | title = The control revolution: technological and economic origins of the information society | publisher=Harvard University Press | year = 1986 | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-674-16986-9 | title-link = The control revolution: technological and economic origins of the information society }} − * {{Cite book | last = Babbage | first = Charles | author-link = Charles Babbage | year = 1864 − | publication-date = 2008 | editor-last = Campbell-Kelly | editor-first = Martin | editor-link = Martin Campbell-Kelly | title = Passages from the life of a philosopher | publisher=Rough Draft Printing | isbn = 978-1-60386-092-5 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Bodanis | first = David | author-link = David Bodanis | title = Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World | year = 2005 |publisher=Three Rivers Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-307-33598-2 | oclc = 61684223}} − * Bruderer, Herbert: [http://www.oldenbourg-verlag.de/wissenschaftsverlag/konrad-zuse-und-schweiz/9783486713664 ''Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz. Wer hat den Computer erfunden? Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John von Neumann''] Oldenbourg Verlag, München 2012, XXVI, 224 Seiten, {{isbn|978-3-486-71366-4}} − * {{Cite book | last1 = Campbell-Kelly | first1 = Martin | author-link = Martin Campbell-Kelly | last2 = Aspray | first2 = William | title = Computer: A History of the Information Machine | publisher = Basic Books | year = 1996 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-02989-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/computerhistoryo00camp }} − * {{Cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | author-link = Paul E. Ceruzzi | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher=MIT Press | year = 1998 | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London | isbn = 978-0-262-53169-6}} − * {{Cite book | last = Chandler | first = Alfred | author-link = Alfred D. Chandler Jr. | title = The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business | publisher = Belknap Press | year = 1977 | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-674-94052-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan }} − * {{cite journal|last1=Church|first1=Alonzo|author-link=Alonzo Church|title=An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory|journal=[[American Journal of Mathematics]]|volume=58|issue=2|year=1936|pages=345–363|issn=0002-9327|doi=10.2307/2371045|jstor=2371045}} − * {{cite book | last1 = Cooper | first1 = S. Barry | last2 = van Leeuwen | first2 = Jan | title = Alan Turing: His Work and Impact | year = 2013 | location = New York | publisher = Elsevier | isbn = 978-0-12-386980-7 }} − * {{Cite journal | last = Copeland | first = B. Jack | author-link = Jack Copeland | title = Colossus: Its Origins and Originators | journal=[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]] | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 38–45 | year = 2004a |doi = 10.1109/MAHC.2004.26 | s2cid = 20209254 }} − * {{Cite book |editor-last = Copeland |editor-first = B. Jack| title = The Essential Turing | year = 2004b | publisher=Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-825079-1 | oclc = 156728127 }} − * {{Cite book | editor-last = Copeland | editor-first = B. Jack | title = Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine | year = 2005 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-856593-2 | oclc = 224640979 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/alanturingsautom0000unse }} − * {{Cite book | last = Copeland | first = B. Jack | title = Colossus: The secrets of Bletchley Park's code-breaking computers | year = 2006 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-284055-4 }} − ** {{Cite book | last = Hilton | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Hilton | year = 2006 | chapter = Living with Fish: Breaking Tunny in the Newmanry and Testery |title=Colussus}} in {{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|pp=189–203}} − * {{Cite book | last = Edwards | first = Paul N | title = The closed world: computers and the politics of discourse in Cold War America | publisher=MIT Press | year = 1996 | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-262-55028-4 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Gannon | first = Paul | title = Colossus: Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret | place = London | publisher=Atlantic Books | orig-year = 2006 | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-1-84354-331-2 }} − * {{cite book | last = Hodges | first = Andrew| author-link = Andrew Hodges | title = Alan Turing : the enigma|location = London | publisher=Burnett Books | isbn = 978-0-09-152130-1 | year = 1983 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Hochhuth | first = Rolf | author-link = Rolf Hochhuth | title = Alan Turing: en berättelse | publisher=Symposion | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-91-7868-109-9 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Leavitt | first = David | author-link = David Leavitt | year = 2007 | title = The man who knew too much: Alan Turing and the invention of the computer | publisher=Phoenix | isbn = 978-0-7538-2200-5 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Levin | first = Janna | author-link = Janna Levin | title = A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines | publisher=Knopf | year = 2006 | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-4000-3240-2 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Lewin | first = Ronald | author-link = Ronald Lewin | title = Ultra Goes to War: The Secret Story | edition = Classic Penguin | series = Classic Military History | year = 1978 | publication-date = 2001 | publisher=Hutchinson & Co | location = London | isbn = 978-1-56649-231-7 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Lubar | first = Steven | year = 1993 | title = Infoculture | location = Boston, Massachusetts and New York | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | isbn = 978-0-395-57042-5 | url = https://archive.org/details/infoculturesmith00luba }} − * {{Cite web | last = Mahon | first = A.P. | title = The History of Hut Eight 1939–1945 | publisher=UK National Archives Reference HW 25/2 | year = 1945 | url = http://www.ellsbury.com/hut8/hut8-000.htm | access-date =10 December 2009 }} − * {{Cite book | editor-last = Oakley | editor-first = Brian | editor-link = Brian Oakley | title = The Bletchley Park War Diaries: July 1939 – August 1945 | publisher=Wynne Press | year = 2006 | edition = 2.6 }} − * {{Cite journal | last1 = O'Connell | first1 = H | last2 = Fitzgerald | first2 = M | title = Did Alan Turing have Asperger's syndrome? | journal=Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–31 | publisher=Irish Institute of Psychological Medicine | year = 2003 | issn = 0790-9667 | doi=10.1017/s0790966700007503| pmid = 30440230 | s2cid = 53563123 }} − * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Turing|title=Alan Mathison Turing}} − * Petzold, Charles (2008). "[[The Annotated Turing]]: A Guided Tour through Alan Turing's Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing Machine". [[Indianapolis]]: Wiley Publishing. {{isbn|978-0-470-22905-7}} − * Smith, Roger (1997). ''Fontana History of the Human Sciences''. London: Fontana. − * {{Cite book | last = Sipser | first = Michael | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher=PWS Publishing | isbn = 978-0-534-95097-2 | year = 2006 }} − * Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). ''Computer Power and Human Reason''. London: W.H. Freeman. {{isbn|0-7167-0463-3}} − * {{Cite news | last= Turing | first= A.M. |year = 1937 | title = On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem | orig-year = Delivered to the Society November 1936 | periodical = Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society | series = 2 | volume = 42 | pages = 230–65 | doi= 10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 | url = http://www.comlab.ox.ac.uk/activities/ieg/e-library/sources/tp2-ie.pdf }} and {{Cite news| last = Turing | first = A.M. | publication-date = 1937 | title = On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction | periodical = Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society | series = 2 | volume = 43 | pages = 544–46 | doi = 10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544 | year = 1938 }} − * {{Cite book | last = Turing | first = Sara Stoney | title = Alan M Turing | publisher=W Heffer | year = 1959}} Turing's mother, who survived him by many years, wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published in 1959, and so could not cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of [[St John's College, Cambridge]]). The six-page foreword by [[Lyn Irvine]] includes reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth, and included a new foreword by [[Martin Davis (mathematician)|Martin Davis]], as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's older brother John F. Turing. − * {{Cite book | last1 = Whitemore | first1 = Hugh | author-link = Hugh Whitemore | last2 = Hodges | first2 = Andrew | author-link2 = Andrew Hodges | title = Breaking the code | publisher=S. French | year = 1988}} This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play tells the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, [[Derek Jacobi]] played Turing and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and [[WGBH-TV|WGBH, Boston]]. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, [[Oxford]], ASIN: B000B7TM0Q − * Williams, Michael R. (1985) ''A History of Computing Technology'', [[Englewood Cliffs]], [[New Jersey]]: [[Prentice-Hall]], {{isbn|0-8186-7739-2}} − * {{Cite book|last=Yates |first=David M. |title=Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945–1995 |year=1997 |publisher=[[Science Museum, London|London Science Museum]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-901805-94-2 |oclc=123794619 }} − {{Refend}} − − − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * Bruderer, Herbert: Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz. Wer hat den Computer erfunden? Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John von Neumann Oldenbourg Verlag, München 2012, XXVI, 224 Seiten, − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − ** in − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * − * Petzold, Charles (2008). "The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour through Alan Turing's Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing Machine". Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. − * Smith, Roger (1997). Fontana History of the Human Sciences. London: Fontana. − * − * Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer Power and Human Reason. London: W.H. Freeman. − * and − * Turing's mother, who survived him by many years, wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published in 1959, and so could not cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword by Lyn Irvine includes reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth, and included a new foreword by Martin Davis, as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's older brother John F. Turing. − * This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play tells the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played Turing and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and WGBH, Boston. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford, ASIN: B000B7TM0Q − * Williams, Michael R. (1985) A History of Computing Technology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, − * − − − ===Sources=== − − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * Bruderer, Herbert: Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz.Wer hat den Computer erfunden?Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John von Neumann Oldenbourg Verlag, München 2012, XXVI, 224 Seiten, − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − * in − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * − − * Petzold, Charles (2008).“带注释的图灵: 阿兰 · 图灵关于可计算性和图灵机的历史性论文的导游”。印第安纳波利斯: 威利出版社。 − * 史密斯，罗杰(1997)。丰塔纳人文科学史。伦敦: 丰塔纳。 − * − − * Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976).计算机能力与人类理性。伦敦: w.h。弗里曼。 − * 和 − * 图灵的母亲，比他活了许多年，写了这本157页的儿子传记，歌颂了他的一生。这本书出版于1959年，因此无法报道他的战争作品。销售量不到300本(莎拉 · 图灵给林恩 · 纽曼，1967年，剑桥大学圣约翰学院图书馆)。林恩•欧文的前言长达六页，其中包括回忆录，引用频率也更高。2012年，为了纪念图灵的百年诞辰，剑桥大学出版社重新出版了这本书，其中包括马丁 · 戴维斯(Martin Davis)的新前言，以及图灵的哥哥约翰 · f · 图灵(John f. Turing)从未出版过的回忆录。这部1986年的休 · 怀特摩尔的戏剧讲述了图灵的生与死的故事。在最初的伦敦西区和百老汇演出中，德里克 · 雅各比扮演了图灵，并在1997年的一部电视电影中再现了这个角色，该电影是根据 BBC 和波士顿 WGBH 联合制作的。该剧由 Amber Lane Press 出版，牛津，ASIN: B000B7TM0Q − * Williams，Michael r. (1985) a History of Computing Technology，恩格尔伍德克利夫斯，新泽西: Prentice-Hall， − * − − ==Further reading== − ===Articles=== − * {{cite journal| year=1950|last=Turing|first=Alan|title=Computing Machinery and Intelligence|journal=[[Mind (journal)|Mind]] |volume=49|issue=236|pages= 433–460 |url=https://www.csee.umbc.edu/courses/471/papers/turing.pdf |doi=10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433}} − * {{cite journal| title=The Mind and the Computing Machine: Alan Turing and others|journal=[[The Rutherford Journal]] |url=http://www.rutherfordjournal.org/article010111.html |editor-first=B. Jack | editor-last=Copeland }} − * {{cite journal| title=Alan Turing: Father of the Modern Computer|journal=[[The Rutherford Journal]] |url=http://www.rutherfordjournal.org/article040101.html |editor-first=B. Jack | editor-last=Copeland }} − * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Hodges |first=Andrew |editor=Edward N. Zalta|encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |title=Alan Turing |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/turing/ |access-date=10 January 2011 |edition=Winter 2009 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Stanford University]] }} − * {{cite ODNB|id=36578|title=Turing, Alan Mathison|year=2004|last=Hodges|first=Andrew}} − * {{cite magazine|last=Gray|first=Paul|date=29 March 1999|title=Computer Scientist: Alan Turing|magazine=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016225903/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990624,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 October 2007}} − − * − * − * − * − * − * − − = = = = = = = = = = = = = − * − * − * − * − * − * − − ===Books=== − * {{Citation |last= Bernhardt |first= Chris |title= Turing's Vision: The Birth of Computer Science |publisher= MIT Press |year= 2017 |isbn= 978-0-262-53351-5 }} − * {{cite book| author-link1=Jack Copeland | last1=Copeland |first1=B. Jack | author-link2=Jonathan Bowen | last2=Bowen | first2=Jonathan P. | author-link3=Robin Wilson (mathematician) | last3=Wilson | first3=Robin | last4=Sprevak | first4=Mark | title=The Turing Guide | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | date=2017 | isbn=978-0-19-874783-3 | title-link=The Turing Guide }} − * {{cite book| title=Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe | author-link=George Dyson (science historian) | first=George | last=Dyson | isbn=978-1-4000-7599-7 | year=2012 | publisher=Vintage }} − * {{cite book| author-link=James Gleick | last=Gleick | first=James | title=The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood | location=New York | publisher=Pantheon | date=2011 | isbn=978-0-375-42372-7 | title-link=The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood }} − * {{cite book| title=Alan Turing: The Enigma| year=2014 | first=Andrew | last=Hodges | author-link=Andrew Hodges | publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] | isbn=978-0-691-16472-4 }} (originally published in 1983); basis of the film ''[[The Imitation Game]]'' − * {{cite book | title=Alan M. Turing | year=2012 | first=Sara | last=Turing | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-1-107-02058-0}} (originally published in 1959 by W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd) − − * − * − * − * − * (originally published in 1983); basis of the film The Imitation Game − * (originally published in 1959 by W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd) − − = = = = = = = = − * − * − * − * − * (最初出版于1983年)电影《模仿游戏基本原理 − * (最初出版于1959年 w. Heffer & Sons，Ltd) − − ==External links== − {{Commons category|Alan Turing}} − {{Wikiquote}} − * [http://purl.umn.edu/107493 Oral history interview with Nicholas C. Metropolis], [[Charles Babbage Institute]], University of Minnesota. Metropolis was the first director of computing services at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]; topics include the relationship between Turing and [[John von Neumann]] − * [http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-alan-turing-cracked-the-enigma-code How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code] Imperial War Museums − * [http://acm.rkbexplorer.com/id/596957 Alan Turing] RKBExplorer − * [http://www.turingcentenary.eu/ Alan Turing Year] − * [http://cie2012.eu/ CiE 2012: Turing Centenary Conference] − * [https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/people/fst00117605 Science in the Making] Alan Turing's papers in the Royal Society's archives − * [http://www.turing.org.uk/ Alan Turing] site maintained by [[Andrew Hodges]] including a [https://web.archive.org/web/20180721235734/http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part1.html short biography] − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181012014022/http://www.alanturing.net/ AlanTuring.net – Turing Archive for the History of Computing] by [[Jack Copeland]] − * [http://www.turingarchive.org/ The Turing Archive] – contains scans of some unpublished documents and material from the King's College, Cambridge archive − * [https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/manchesteruniversity/data/gb133-tur/add Alan Turing Papers] – [[University of Manchester Library]], Manchester − * {{cite journal|last=Jones|first=G. James|date=11 December 2001|title=Alan Turing – Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1|journal=System Toolbox|publisher=The Binary Freedom Project|url=http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803163318/http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3|archive-date=3 August 2007}} − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160104203150/http://oldshirburnian.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TURING-Alan-Mathison.pdf Sherborne School Archives] – holds papers relating to Turing's time at Sherborne School − * [https://openplaques.org/people/368 Alan Turing plaques] recorded on openplaques.org − * [https://www.newscientist.com/people/alan-turing/ Alan Turing] archive on New Scientist − * {{find a Grave|12651680}} − − − − * Oral history interview with Nicholas C. Metropolis, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Metropolis was the first director of computing services at Los Alamos National Laboratory; topics include the relationship between Turing and John von Neumann − * How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums − * Alan Turing RKBExplorer − * Alan Turing Year − * CiE 2012: Turing Centenary Conference − * Science in the Making Alan Turing's papers in the Royal Society's archives − * Alan Turing site maintained by Andrew Hodges including a short biography − * AlanTuring.net – Turing Archive for the History of Computing by Jack Copeland − * The Turing Archive – contains scans of some unpublished documents and material from the King's College, Cambridge archive − * Alan Turing Papers – University of Manchester Library, Manchester − * − * Sherborne School Archives – holds papers relating to Turing's time at Sherborne School − * Alan Turing plaques recorded on openplaques.org − * Alan Turing archive on New Scientist − * − − 明尼苏达大学，Charles Babbage Institute，Nicholas c. Metropolis 口述历史专访。大都会是洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室计算机服务部门的第一任主管;图灵百年图灵会议2012年图灵百年会议图灵百年会议约翰·冯·诺伊曼图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议2012年图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议2012年图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议图灵会议,剑桥档案馆 − * Alan Turing Papers-曼彻斯特大学图书馆，曼彻斯特 − * − * 谢伯恩学校档案馆 − * − * 谢伯恩学校档案馆---- 保存有关图灵时代的论文 − * Alan Turing plaques recorded on openplains.org − * Alan Turing archive on New Scientist − * − − {{FRS 1951}} − {{Timelines of computing}} − {{Portal bar|Biography|England|LGBT|Greater Manchester|Mathematics|Computer programming|World War II}} − {{Authority control}} − {{Alan Turing}} − {{Good article}} − − {{DEFAULTSORT:Turing, Alan Mathison}} − [[Category:Alan Turing| ]] − [[Category:1912 births]] − [[Category:1954 deaths]] − [[Category:1954 suicides]] − [[Category:20th-century mathematicians]] − [[Category:20th-century atheists]] − [[Category:20th-century British scientists]] − [[Category:20th-century English philosophers]] − 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Its edit history can be viewed at [[艾伦·图灵/edithistory]]</small></noinclude> − − [[Category:待整理页面]]
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