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第28行： − |- − | || 科学事业 第45行：
第43行： − + − + − Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref name=":6">{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |quote=In ''The Origin'', Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin's day, the evidence for his theories was compelling but not completely decisive. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |authorlink=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 978-0-8018-0222-5|page=iv |quote=Darwin's solution is a magnificent synthesis of evidence...a synthesis...compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness}}</ref> By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted [[evolution as fact and theory|evolution as a fact]]. However, many favoured [[The eclipse of Darwinism|competing explanations]] which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]] from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.<ref name="JvW">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref><ref name="b3847">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=178–179, 338, 347}}</ref> Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the [[life sciences]], explaining the [[diversity of life]].<ref name=":8">[http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html The Complete Works of Darwin Online – Biography.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107165048/http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html |date=7 January 2007 }} ''darwin-online.org.uk''. Retrieved 2006-12-15<br />{{Harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref><ref name=":9">As Darwinian scholar Joseph Carroll of the University of Missouri–St. Louis puts it in his introduction to a modern reprint of Darwin's work: "''The Origin of Species'' has special claims on our attention. It is one of the two or three most significant works of all time—one of those works that fundamentally and permanently alter our vision of the world...It is argued with a singularly rigorous consistency but it is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetorically compelling." {{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 978-1-55111-337-1|page=15 |url= }}</ref> − 达尔文在1859年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种起源On the Origin of Species </font>'''》<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现'''<font color="#ff8000"> 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>'''，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，并且认为自然选择是进化的基本机制<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="b3847" />。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" />。+ − − − − − Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School|University of Edinburgh]]; instead, he helped to investigate [[marine invertebrates]]. Studies at the [[University of Cambridge]] ([[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]]) encouraged his passion for [[natural science]].<ref name=whowas>{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/WhoWas.html About Charles Darwin]}}</ref> [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|His five-year voyage]] on {{HMS|Beagle}} established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported [[Charles Lyell]]'s [[uniformitarian|conception of gradual geological change]], and publication of his [[The Voyage of the Beagle|journal of the voyage]] made him famous as a popular author.<ref name=":10">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 210, 284–285}}</ref> 第62行：
第54行： − + − Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.<ref name=":11">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=263–274}}</ref> Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.<ref name=":12">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=184, 187}}</ref> He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|both of their theories]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal | last1 = Beddall | first1 = B. G. | title = Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection | journal = Journal of the History of Biology | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–323 | year = 1968 | doi = 10.1007/BF00351923 | s2cid = 81107747 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.<ref name = JvW /> In 1871 he examined [[human evolution]] and [[sexual selection]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', followed by ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, [[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms|''The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms'']] (1881), he examined [[earthworm]]s and their effect on soil.<ref name=":14">{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite web|url=http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|title=AboutDarwin.com – All of Darwin's Books|website=www.aboutdarwin.com|access-date=30 March 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401191909/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|archivedate=1 April 2016}}</ref> − − 在长达五年的航行过程中，达尔文对收集到的野生动植物和化石的地理分布记录感到困惑，于是开始了详细的研究，并于1838年提出了他的自然选择理论<ref name=":11" />。尽管他与数位博物学家讨论了他的想法，但他仍需要时间进行更广泛的研究来验证，而且他的本职地质工作仍然需要继续<ref name=":12" />。1858年，当阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace给他写了一篇描述同样想法的文章时，他正在撰写自己的理论，因此就促使了他们联合发表他们的理论<ref name=":13" />。达尔文的工作建立了适应性调节进化的理论基础，作为自然界多元化<ref name="JvW" />的主要科学解释。1871年，他在《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人类起源和性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中研究了人类的进化和性选择，以及与性相关的其他选择，之后在1872年还出版了另一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》。他对植物的研究也发表在一系列著作中，在他的最后一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 通过蠕虫的作用而形成的植物霉菌The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms </font>'''》（1881年）中，他研究了蚯蚓及其对土壤<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />的影响。 − − − − + − {{See also|Charles Darwin's education|Darwin-Wedgwood family}} − Charles Robert Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]].<ref name=":16">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Desmond|first=Adrian J.|title=Charles Darwin|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 September 2002|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite web|url= http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title= The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author= John H. Wahlert|date= 11 June 2001|work= Darwin and Darwinism|publisher= [[Baruch College]]|accessdate= 26 November 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archivedate= 6 December 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). His grandfathers [[Erasmus Darwin]] and [[Josiah Wedgwood]] were both prominent [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionists]]. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and [[common descent]] in his ''[[Zoonomia]]'' (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.<ref name=":18">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–40]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref> − − 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡的什鲁斯伯<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> 里山顶的小屋里，在六个孩子中排行第五。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生和金融家罗伯特·达尔文Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文Susannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物法则Zoonomia </font>'''》（1794年）中称赞了进化和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common descent</font>'''这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中也含有一些尚未成熟的观念，这些观点也成为他孙子未来所提出的理念的雏形<ref name=":18" />。 − − − − Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a [[Freethought#England and France|freethinker]], had baby Charles [[baptism|baptised]] in November 1809 in the Anglican [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury]], but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] attending the nearby Anglican [[Shrewsbury School]] as a [[boarding school|boarder]].<ref name=skool>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 12–15}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21 21–25]}}</ref> − − − − Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned [[taxidermy]] in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave who had accompanied [[Charles Waterton]] in the South American [[rainforest]].<ref name=eddy>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 47–51]}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=18–26}}</ref> + − − In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the [[Plinian Society]], a student [[natural history|natural-history]] group featuring lively debates in which [[radicalism (historical)#Popular agitation|radical democratic]] students with [[materialism|materialistic]] views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=31–34}} He assisted [[Robert Edmond Grant]]'s investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of [[marine invertebrates]] in the [[Firth of Forth]], and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in [[oyster]] shells were the eggs of a skate [[leech]]. One day, Grant praised [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s [[Lamarckism|evolutionary ideas]]. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals.<ref name=":19">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=72–88}}</ref> Darwin was rather bored by [[Robert Jameson]]'s natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between [[Neptunism]] and [[Plutonism]]. He learned the [[alpha taxonomy|classification]] of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the [[Royal Museum|University Museum]], one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.<ref name=":20">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=42–43}}</ref> − − 达尔文在大学的第二年，加入了布里尼学会Plinian Society，这是一个由一群研究自然历史的学生组成的团体，其中经常会有激烈的辩论关于民主学生以唯物主义的观点挑战正统的科学宗教观念。在这期间，达尔文协助罗伯特·埃德蒙·格兰特Robert Edmond Grant对福斯峡湾Firth of Forth海洋无脊椎动物的解剖结构和生命周期进行了调查，并于1827年3月27日在布里尼学会期刊上提出了自己的发现，即牡蛎壳中发现的黑孢子是滑冰水蛭的卵。有一天，格兰特称赞拉马克的进化思想。格兰特的大胆令达尔文感到十分震惊，但当时他在祖父伊拉斯谟日记<ref name=":19" />中也读到了类似的观点。 + − Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], to study for a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country [[parson]]. As Darwin was unqualified for the ''[[Tripos]]'', he joined the ''ordinary'' degree course in January 1828.<ref name=":21">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=47–48, 89–91}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=47–48}}</ref> He preferred [[equestrianism|riding]] and [[shooting sports|shooting]] to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin [[William Darwin Fox]] was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to [[entomology]] and influencing him to pursue [[beetle]] collecting.<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–58]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|author=Darwin|first=Charles|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin|publisher=D. Appleton|year=1901|volume=vol. 1|location=|pages=43–44|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924204343/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|url-status=live}}</ref> He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in [[James Francis Stephens]]' ''Illustrations of British entomology'' (1829–32).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|editor-last=Van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829-32)|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2020-07-03|website=Darwin Online|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref> Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor [[John Stevens Henslow]].<ref name=":02" /> He met other leading [[parson-naturalist]]s who saw scientific work as religious [[natural theology]], becoming known to these [[University don|dons]] as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of [[William Paley]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity''<ref name=dar57>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 73–79}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59 57–67]}}</ref> (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ''ordinary'' degree.<ref name=":23">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=97}}</ref>+ − − − − 达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲大为恼火，于是他特地将达尔文送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试资格标准，于是他在1828年1月选择了普通学位课程<ref name=":21" />。然而相较于学习，他更喜欢骑马和射击。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，并让达尔文了解了昆虫学，促使他开始了甲虫收藏<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":2" />。渐渐地，他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯James Francis Stephens的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":22" />（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯的引荐，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛<ref name=":02" />的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》<ref name="dar57" />（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。<ref name=":23" /> − − − − Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' (first published in 1802), which made an [[teleological argument|argument for divine design in nature]], explaining [[adaptation]] as God acting through [[Physical law|laws of nature]].<ref name="syd5-7">{{Harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=5–7}}</ref> He read [[John Herschel]]'s new book, ''Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy'' (1831), which described the highest aim of [[natural philosophy]] as understanding such laws through [[inductive reasoning]] based on observation, and [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'' of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit [[Tenerife]] with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the [[tropics]]. In preparation, he joined [[Adam Sedgwick]]'s [[geology]] course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping [[strata]] in [[Wales]].<ref name=db>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69 67–68]}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=128–129, 133–141}}</ref> − − 为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥待到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》和《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了生物的适应性行为其实是神通过自然法则行事<ref name="syd5-7" />。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。<ref name="db" /><ref name=":24" /> 第124行：
第86行： − + − After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a week with student friends at [[Barmouth]], then returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) [[natural history|naturalist]] for a self-funded [[wikt:supernumerary|supernumerary]] place on {{HMS|Beagle}} with captain [[Robert FitzRoy]], emphasising that this was a position for a [[gentleman]] rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.<ref name=":25">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831|accessdate=29 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035549/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|archivedate=16 January 2009}}</ref> [[Robert Darwin]] objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, [[Josiah Wedgwood II]], to agree to (and fund) his son's participation.<ref name=":26">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 94–97}}</ref> Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.<ref name="Browne">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=204–210}}</ref> − 在离开威尔士的塞奇威克后，达尔文在巴茅斯与学生朋友待了一个星期，于8月29日返回家乡，并收到了汉斯洛的来信。信中汉斯洛建议他考虑一下做个博物学家，并与船长罗伯·菲茨罗伊Robert FitzRoy一起为HMS Beagle猎犬号自筹资金，这样或许可以得到一个编外名额从而登船。汉斯洛特地强调这是一个绅士的职位，而不是“单纯的收集者”。该船将在四周内离开，以绘制南美海岸线图<ref name=":25" />。该船将于四周内启航，绘制南美海岸线图。罗伯特·达尔文反对儿子未来的两年航程，他认为这是在浪费时间，但他的姐夫约西亚·韦奇伍德二世Josiah Wedgwood II说服了他同意并资助儿子的计划<ref name=":26" />。后来达尔文小心翼翼地以私人身份保留着对藏品的控制权，他打算将其投入于大型科学机构。<ref name="Browne" />+ − − − − After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS ''Beagle'' [[hydrography|surveyed and charted]] coasts.<ref name=JvW /><ref name=kix>{{harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=12 ix–xi]}}</ref> He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of [[The Voyage of the Beagle|his journal]] for his family.<ref name=":27">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=18–21}}</ref> He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting [[marine invertebrates]], but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal.<ref name=fnGal>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|accessdate=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archivedate=1 September 2009|author2-link=Randal Keynes}}</ref> Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with [[plankton]] collected in a calm spell.<ref name=kix /><ref name=plankton>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=53 21–22]}}</ref> − − 航行后来延误到1831年12月27日启航，而且它持续了将近五年。正如菲茨罗伊所希望的那样，达尔文大部分时间都在土地上进行地质调查和自然历史采集<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="kix" /> ，而HMS Beagle则在调查和绘制海岸图。他仔细记录了自己的观察和理论推测，并在航行中不定期将标本与信件一起寄到剑桥，其中包括他的家人日记<ref name=":27" />。他在地质学、甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面具有一定的专业知识，但在其它所有领域都是新手。不过他会妥善收集标本并供专家评估。<ref name="fnGal" />尽管遭受晕船之苦，达尔文还是在船上写下了大量笔记。他的大部分动物学笔记都是关于海洋无脊椎动物的，自无风期的浮游生物开始。<ref name="kix" /><ref name="plankton" /> − − − − − On their first stop ashore at [[Santiago, Cape Verde|St Jago]] in [[Cape Verde]], Darwin found that a white band high in the [[volcanic rock]] cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''[[Principles of Geology]]'', which set out [[uniformitarian]] concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,{{Ref label|B|II|none}} and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.<ref name=":28">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=183–190}}</ref> When they reached [[Brazil]], Darwin was delighted by the [[Bahia coastal forests|tropical forest]],<ref name=":29">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=73 41–42]}}</ref> but detested the sight of [[slavery]], and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.<ref name=":30">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=75 73–74]}}</ref> − − − − The survey continued to the south in [[Patagonia]]. They stopped at [[Bahía Blanca]], and in cliffs near [[Punta Alta]] Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct [[mammal]]s beside modern seashells, indicating recent [[extinction]] with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known ''[[Megatherium]]'' by a tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local [[armadillo]]s. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.<ref name=":31">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 223–235}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=7 7]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 210}}</ref><ref name=k206>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=138 206–209]}}</ref> − On rides with [[gaucho]]s into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and [[anthropology|anthropological]] insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of [[rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories.<ref name=":32">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 189–192, 198}}</ref><ref name=":33">{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as [[raised beach]]es showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.<ref name=":34">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 131, 159}}<br />{{harvnb|Herbert|1991|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=16 174–179]}}</ref><ref name="HurrahChiloe">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|title=Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204201413/http://www.darwin-online.org.uk./EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|archivedate=4 December 2008}}</ref>+ − − 在高乔人随同下，达尔文进入领地内去探索地质并收集更多化石，他因此对本土人民和革命时期殖民地人民的社会，政治和人类学方面都获得了独到的见解。并了解到两种类型的美洲鸵具有独立但重叠的领地。在更南的地方，他还看到阶梯状的带状平原和贝壳状的高架海滩，它们呈现出一系列不同的高地<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":33" /> 。他阅读了莱尔的第二卷，接受了其关于物种“创造中心”的观点，但是他的发现和理论挑战了莱尔关于平稳连续性和物种灭绝的思想。<ref name=":34" /><ref name="HurrahChiloe" /> − − − − Three [[Fuegians]] on board had been seized during the [[HMS Beagle#First voyage|first ''Beagle'' voyage]], then during a year in England were educated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at [[Tierra del Fuego]] he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals.<ref name=":35">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205–208]}}</ref> He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with [[Monogenism|a shared origin]] and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.<ref name=":36">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 243–244, 248–250, 382–383}}</ref> A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named [[Jemmy Button]] lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.<ref name=":37">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=258 226–227]}}</ref> − − − − Darwin experienced [[1835 Concepción earthquake|an earthquake in Chile]] in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide. High in the [[Andes]] he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, [[island|oceanic islands]] sank, and [[coral reef]]s round them grew to form [[atoll]]s.<ref name=":38">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 160–168, 182}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=278 260]}}</ref><ref name=atolls>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=100 pp. 98–99]}}</ref> − + − On the geologically new [[Galápagos Islands]], Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found [[mockingbird]]s allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of [[tortoise]] shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.<ref name=k356>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=388 356–357]}}</ref><ref name=":39">{{harvnb|Sulloway|1982|p=19}}</ref> In Australia, the [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and the [[platypus]] seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.<ref name=Crows>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|title=Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction to the Sydney Notebook|accessdate=2 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114015611/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|archivedate=14 January 2009}}</ref> He found the [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.<ref name=":40">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=430 398–399].}}</ref> + − 在地理意义上新发现的加拉帕戈斯群岛上，达尔文寻找证据证明野生生物具有“创造中心”这一观点，他发现了智利存在一种类似的，但在各个岛屿之间又有所不同的知更鸟。他听说根据乌龟壳略有变化的形状，可以得知它们来自哪个岛，但最后他即使食用了船上的乌龟，也未能将它们收集起来。<ref name="k356" /><ref name=":39" />在澳大利亚，存活着鼠袋鼠和鸭嘴兽似乎很不寻常，以至于达尔文依稀觉得好像两个不同的造物者在工作<ref name="Crows" />。他发现原住民“幽默愉快”，并注意到本岛上那些欧洲定居点对原住民的文化个性的影响，促使其消失。<ref name=":40" /> − − − − − FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising.<ref name=atolls /> FitzRoy began writing the official ''Narrative'' of the ''Beagle'' voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account.<ref name=Letter301>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 301 – Darwin, C.R. to Darwin, C.S., 29 Apr 1836|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084605/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|archivedate=5 December 2008|access-date=3 September 2008}}</ref> Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal]]'' was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.<ref name=":41">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 336}}</ref> − − 菲茨罗伊研究了科科斯基林群岛环礁的形成方式，并为达尔文的理论提供了支持<ref name="atolls" />。随后他开始撰写猎犬号航行的官方叙事，在阅读达尔文的日记后，他提议将其纳入其中<ref name="Letter301" />。最终，《达尔文日记Darwin's Journal》被改写为单独的第三卷，归类为自然史。<ref name=":41" /> − − − − − In [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], Darwin and FitzRoy met [[John Herschel]], who had recently written to Lyell praising his [[uniformitarianism]] as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".<ref name=Rascals>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=21 197]}}</ref> + − − When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the [[Falkland Islands wolf|Falkland Islands fox]] were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".<ref name=xix>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=22 xix–xx]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".<ref name=":42">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 p. 1]}}</ref> − − 达尔文在返航时整理了他的笔记，他写道，他对知更鸟，乌龟和福克兰群岛的狐狸的物种相似性和区别不断产生怀疑，因为“这些事实破坏了物种的稳定性”，所以他在“破坏”前面谨慎地加上了“可能将会”<ref name="xix" />。他后来写道，这些事实“似乎让我对物种起源有了一些了解”。<ref name=":42" /> − − {{details|Inception of Darwin's theory}} − − − By the time Darwin returned to England, he was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by publishing a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters for select naturalists.<ref name=":43">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LettersOnGeology.html editorial introduction]}}</ref> On 2 October 1836 the ship anchored at [[Falmouth, Cornwall]]. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to [[Cambridge]] to see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and who agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded [[gentleman scientist]], and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being promoted and encouraged through the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 195–198}}</ref> − − − − Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]], who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct [[ground sloth]]s as well as the ''[[Megatherium]]'', a near complete skeleton of the unknown ''[[Scelidotherium]]'' and a [[hippopotamus]]-sized [[rodent]]-like skull named ''[[Toxodon]]'' resembling a giant [[capybara]]. The armour fragments were actually from ''[[Glyptodon]]'', a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.<ref name=":44">{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=26 16], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=83 73], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=116 106]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref><ref name=k206 /> These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.<ref name=":45">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 201–205}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=349–350}}</ref> − − − − In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his ''Journal''.<ref name=":46">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=345–347}}</ref> He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Common blackbird|blackbirds]], "[[Grosbeak|gros-beaks]]" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<ref name=":47">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 207–210}}<br />{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=20–23}}</ref> 第230行：
第137行： − +
无编辑摘要
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| 姓名 ||查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 Charles Darwin
| 姓名 ||查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 Charles Robert Darwin
|-
|-
| 出生 || 1809年2月12日，什鲁斯伯里的达尔文庄园，英格兰什罗普郡
| 出生 || 1809年2月12日，什鲁斯伯里的达尔文庄园，英格兰什罗普郡
*科普利奖章（1864）
*科普利奖章（1864）
*剑桥法学博士（荣誉）（1877年）<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323205747/http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|url-status=dead|title=Darwin Endless Forms » Darwin in Cambridge|archive-date=23 March 2017}}</ref>
*剑桥法学博士（荣誉）（1877年）<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323205747/http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|url-status=dead|title=Darwin Endless Forms » Darwin in Cambridge|archive-date=23 March 2017}}</ref>
|-
|-
| 领域 || 自然历史，地质
| 领域 || 自然历史，地质
</div>
</div>
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name=frs /> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718234042/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin |date=18 July 2014 }} entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English [[natural history#Before 1900|naturalist]], [[geologist]] and [[biologist]],<ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> best known for his contributions to the science of [[evolution]].{{Ref label|A|I|none}} His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from [[common ancestors]] is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref> In a joint publication with [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], he introduced his scientific theory that this [[Phylogenetics|branching pattern]] of [[evolution]] resulted from a process that he called [[natural selection]], in which the [[struggle for existence]] has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004| pp=79–111}}</ref> Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,<ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011|work=New Scientist|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|archivedate=11 February 2011}}</ref> and he was honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name=frs /> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718234042/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin |date=18 July 2014 }} entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English [[natural history#Before 1900|naturalist]], [[geologist]] and [[biologist]],<ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> best known for his contributions to the science of [[evolution]].{{Ref label|A|I|none}} His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from [[common ancestors]] is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], he introduced his scientific theory that this [[Phylogenetics|branching pattern]] of [[evolution]] resulted from a process that he called [[natural selection]], in which the [[struggle for existence]] has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004| pp=79–111}}</ref> Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文Charles Robert Darwin （</font>'''1809年2月12日至1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家<ref name=":3" />。他因对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common ancestors</font>'''，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，同时被认为是科学的理论基础<ref name=":4" />。在与阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由被他称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural selection</font>'''的过程产生的。在这个过程中，生物为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 选择性育种Selective breeding<ref name="Larson79-111" /></font>'''的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文当选为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一<ref name=":5" />。为了纪念他，人们为他在威斯敏斯特教堂<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />举行了葬礼，这是至高的荣誉。
'''查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 Charles Robert Darwin'''<ref name=frs />（1809年2月12日-1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家<ref name=":3" />。他因对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着共同祖先，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，同时被认为是科学的理论基础<ref name=":4">{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref>。在与Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由被他称为'''自然选择 Natural selection'''的过程产生的。在这个过程中，生物为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''选择性育种 Selective breeding'''<ref name="Larson79-111" />的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文当选为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一<ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011|work=New Scientist|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|archivedate=11 February 2011}}</ref>。为了纪念他，人们为他在威斯敏斯特教堂<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />举行了葬礼，这是至高的荣誉。
达尔文在1859年出版的《物种起源 On the Origin of Species 》<ref name=":6">{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |authorlink=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 978-0-8018-0222-5|page=iv}}</ref>一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现'''<font color="#ff8000"> 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>'''，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，并且认为自然选择是进化的基本机制<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="b3847" />。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":9">{{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 978-1-55111-337-1|page=15 |url= }}</ref>。
在长达五年的航行过程中，达尔文对收集到的野生动植物和化石的地理分布记录感到困惑，于是开始了详细的研究，并于1838年提出了他的自然选择理论<ref name=":11" />。尽管他与数位博物学家讨论了他的想法，但他仍需要时间进行更广泛的研究来验证，而且他的本职地质工作仍然需要继续<ref name=":12" />。1858年，当阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士 Alfred Russel Wallace给他写了一篇描述同样想法的文章时，他正在撰写自己的理论，因此就促使了他们联合发表他们的理论<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal | last1 = Beddall | first1 = B. G. | title = Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection | journal = Journal of the History of Biology | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–323 | year = 1968 | doi = 10.1007/BF00351923 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>。达尔文的工作建立了适应性调节进化的理论基础，作为自然界多元化<ref name="JvW" />的主要科学解释。1871年，他在《'''人类起源和性选择 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'''》一书中研究了人类的进化和性选择，以及与性相关的其他选择，之后在1872年还出版了另一本书《'''人与动物的情感表达 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'''》。他对植物的研究也发表在一系列著作中，在他的最后一本书《'''通过蠕虫的作用而形成的植物霉菌 The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms'''》（1881年）中，他研究了蚯蚓及其对土壤<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15">{{cite web|url=http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|title=AboutDarwin.com – All of Darwin's Books|website=www.aboutdarwin.com|access-date=30 March 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401191909/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|archivedate=1 April 2016}}</ref>的影响。
== 个人简介==
== 个人简介==
=== 早年生活和教育经历 ===
=== 早年生活和教育经历 ===
查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡的什鲁斯伯<ref name=":16">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Desmond|first=Adrian J.|title=Charles Darwin|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 September 2002|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite web|url= http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title= The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author= John H. Wahlert|date= 11 June 2001|work= Darwin and Darwinism|publisher= [[Baruch College]]|accessdate= 26 November 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archivedate= 6 December 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref>里山顶的小屋里，在六个孩子中排行第五。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生和金融家罗伯特·达尔文 Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文nSusannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文 Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德 Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《动物法则 Zoonomia》（1794年）中称赞了进化和共同祖先这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中也含有一些尚未成熟的观念，这些观点也成为他孙子未来所提出的理念的雏形<ref name=":18">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–40]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref>。
[[文件:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|缩略图|左|1816年，埃伦·夏普莱斯Ellen Sharples用粉笔绘制了七岁抱着盆栽的查尔斯·达尔文Charles Darwin]]
[[文件:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|缩略图|左|1816年，埃伦·夏普莱斯Ellen Sharples用粉笔绘制了七岁抱着盆栽的查尔斯·达尔文Charles Darwin]]
尽管韦奇伍德一家信仰英国国教，但两个家庭基本上都是一神论主义者。罗伯特·达尔文本身是一名沉默且坚定地信奉自由主义者的人。他于1809年11月在什鲁斯伯里英国国教圣乍得教堂为达尔文进行了洗礼，但他和他的兄弟姐妹，还有母亲则一起去一神论教堂祷告。八岁的达尔文在1817年加入由传教士经营的日间学校时，已经对自然历史和收藏产生了兴趣。同年七月，他的母亲不幸去世了。从1818年9月起，他与哥哥伊拉斯谟一起在附近的圣公会什鲁斯伯里学校作为寄宿生就读。<ref name="skool" />
尽管韦奇伍德一家信仰英国国教，但两个家庭基本上都是一神论主义者。罗伯特·达尔文本身是一名沉默且坚定地信奉自由主义者的人。他于1809年11月在什鲁斯伯里英国国教圣乍得教堂为达尔文进行了洗礼，但他和他的兄弟姐妹，还有母亲则一起去一神论教堂祷告。八岁的达尔文在1817年加入由传教士经营的日间学校时，已经对自然历史和收藏产生了兴趣。同年七月，他的母亲不幸去世了。从1818年9月起，他与哥哥伊拉斯谟一起在附近的圣公会什鲁斯伯里学校作为寄宿生就读。<ref name="skool" />
1825年夏天，达尔文作为实习医生，帮助父亲治疗什罗普郡的穷人，然后在1825年10月与他的兄弟伊拉斯谟一起就读于爱丁堡大学医学院（当时是英国最好的医学院）。达尔文渐渐发现医学讲座乏味，手术令人痛苦，因此他对学业丧失了兴趣。后来，他在约翰·埃德蒙斯顿John Edmonstone那里坚持了40天，每天大约一小时长的课程，学到动物标本剥制术。约翰·埃德蒙斯顿是一名重获自由的黑人奴隶，曾陪伴查尔斯·沃特顿Charles Waterton进入过南美雨林<ref name="eddy" />。
1825年夏天，达尔文作为实习医生，帮助父亲治疗什罗普郡的穷人，然后在1825年10月与他的兄弟伊拉斯谟一起就读于爱丁堡大学医学院（当时是英国最好的医学院）。达尔文渐渐发现医学讲座乏味，手术令人痛苦，因此他对学业丧失了兴趣。后来，他在约翰·埃德蒙斯顿John Edmonstone那里坚持了40天，每天大约一小时长的课程，学到动物标本剥制术。约翰·埃德蒙斯顿是一名重获自由的黑人奴隶，曾陪伴查尔斯·沃特顿Charles Waterton进入过南美雨林<ref name="eddy" />。
达尔文在大学的第二年，加入了布里尼学会Plinian Society，这是一个由一群研究自然历史的学生组成的团体，其中经常会有激烈的辩论关于民主学生以唯物主义的观点挑战正统的科学宗教观念。在这期间，达尔文协助罗伯特·埃德蒙·格兰特Robert Edmond Grant对福斯峡湾Firth of Forth海洋无脊椎动物的解剖结构和生命周期进行了调查，并于1827年3月27日在布里尼学会期刊上提出了自己的发现，即牡蛎壳中发现的黑孢子是滑冰水蛭的卵。有一天，格兰特称赞拉马克的进化思想。格兰特的大胆令达尔文感到十分震惊，但当时他在祖父伊拉斯谟日记<ref name=":19" />中也读到了类似的观点。
同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学拥有欧洲最大的博物馆之一。<ref name=":20" />
同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学拥有欧洲最大的博物馆之一。<ref name=":20" />
达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲大为恼火，于是他特地将达尔文送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试资格标准，于是他在1828年1月选择了普通学位课程<ref name=":21" />。然而相较于学习，他更喜欢骑马和射击。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，并让达尔文了解了昆虫学，促使他开始了甲虫收藏<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–58]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|author=Darwin|first=Charles|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin|publisher=D. Appleton|year=1901|volume=vol. 1|location=|pages=43–44|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924204343/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|url-status=live}}</ref>。渐渐地，他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯 James Francis Stephens的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|editor-last=Van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829-32)|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2020-07-03|website=Darwin Online|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref>（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯的引荐，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛<ref name=":02" />的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》<ref name="dar57" />（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。<ref name=":23" />
为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥待到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》和《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了生物的适应性行为其实是神通过自然法则行事<ref name="syd5-7" />。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。<ref name="db" /><ref name=":24" />
=== 猎犬号的航行调查 ===
=== 猎犬号的航行调查 ===
[[文件:Voyage of the Beagle-en.svg|缩略图|右|猎犬号环游世界，1831-1836年]]
[[文件:Voyage of the Beagle-en.svg|缩略图|右|猎犬号环游世界，1831-1836年]]
{{details|Second voyage of HMS Beagle}}
在离开威尔士的塞奇威克后，达尔文在巴茅斯与学生朋友待了一个星期，于8月29日返回家乡，并收到了汉斯洛的来信。信中汉斯洛建议他考虑一下做个博物学家，并与船长罗伯·菲茨罗伊Robert FitzRoy一起为HMS Beagle猎犬号自筹资金，这样或许可以得到一个编外名额从而登船。汉斯洛特地强调这是一个绅士的职位，而不是“单纯的收集者”。该船将在四周内离开，以绘制南美海岸线图<ref name=":25">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831|accessdate=29 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035549/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|archivedate=16 January 2009}}</ref>。该船将于四周内启航，绘制南美海岸线图。罗伯特·达尔文反对儿子未来的两年航程，他认为这是在浪费时间，但他的姐夫约西亚·韦奇伍德二世Josiah Wedgwood II说服了他同意并资助儿子的计划<ref name=":26" />。后来达尔文小心翼翼地以私人身份保留着对藏品的控制权，他打算将其投入于大型科学机构。<ref name="Browne" />
航行后来延误到1831年12月27日启航，而且它持续了将近五年。正如菲茨罗伊所希望的那样，达尔文大部分时间都在土地上进行地质调查和自然历史采集<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="kix" /> ，而HMS Beagle则在调查和绘制海岸图。他仔细记录了自己的观察和理论推测，并在航行中不定期将标本与信件一起寄到剑桥，其中包括他的家人日记<ref name=":27" />。他在地质学、甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面具有一定的专业知识，但在其它所有领域都是新手。不过他会妥善收集标本并供专家评估。<ref name=fnGal>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|accessdate=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archivedate=1 September 2009|author2-link=Randal Keynes}}</ref>尽管遭受晕船之苦，达尔文还是在船上写下了大量笔记。他的大部分动物学笔记都是关于海洋无脊椎动物的，自无风期的浮游生物开始。<ref name="kix" /><ref name="plankton" />
达尔文在佛得角圣哈戈上岸的第一站中，发现火山岩峭壁中高处白色带中包含贝壳。菲茨罗伊为他提供了查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 地质学原理Principles of Geology </font>'''》的第一卷，其中阐述了土地在各个时期缓慢上升或下降的统一概念。达尔文看到了莱尔所作的一切，他也在思索着写地质学<ref name=":28" />著作的想法。当他们到达巴西时，达尔文对热带森林<ref name=":29" />感到惊喜好奇，但也因目睹奴隶制的景象而感到愤怒，并与菲茨罗伊产生了争执<ref name=":30" />。
达尔文在佛得角圣哈戈上岸的第一站中，发现火山岩峭壁中高处白色带中包含贝壳。菲茨罗伊为他提供了查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 地质学原理Principles of Geology </font>'''》的第一卷，其中阐述了土地在各个时期缓慢上升或下降的统一概念。达尔文看到了莱尔所作的一切，他也在思索着写地质学<ref name=":28" />著作的想法。当他们到达巴西时，达尔文对热带森林<ref name=":29" />感到惊喜好奇，但也因目睹奴隶制的景象而感到愤怒，并与菲茨罗伊产生了争执<ref name=":30" />。
后来调查继续在巴塔哥尼亚南部进行。他们在巴伊亚布兰卡停了下来，在蓬塔阿尔塔附近的悬崖上的一堆现代贝壳的旁边，达尔文发现了大量已灭绝哺乳动物的化石，这表明最近的灭绝并不是因为气候或灾难的变化。他用牙齿识别出了鲜为人知的大地懒，并将其与骨甲联系起来，在他看来，它最初看起来像是本地犰狳身上的巨型盔甲。这些发现到达英国后引起了当地研究学者极大的兴趣。<ref name=":31" /><ref name="k206" />
后来调查继续在巴塔哥尼亚南部进行。他们在巴伊亚布兰卡停了下来，在蓬塔阿尔塔附近的悬崖上的一堆现代贝壳的旁边，达尔文发现了大量已灭绝哺乳动物的化石，这表明最近的灭绝并不是因为气候或灾难的变化。他用牙齿识别出了鲜为人知的大地懒，并将其与骨甲联系起来，在他看来，它最初看起来像是本地犰狳身上的巨型盔甲。这些发现到达英国后引起了当地研究学者极大的兴趣。<ref name=":31" /><ref name="k206" />
在高乔人随同下，达尔文进入领地内去探索地质并收集更多化石，他因此对本土人民和革命时期殖民地人民的社会，政治和人类学方面都获得了独到的见解。并了解到两种类型的美洲鸵具有独立但重叠的领地。在更南的地方，他还看到阶梯状的带状平原和贝壳状的高架海滩，它们呈现出一系列不同的高地<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":33" /> 。他阅读了莱尔的第二卷，接受了其关于物种“创造中心”的观点，但是他的发现和理论挑战了莱尔关于平稳连续性和物种灭绝的思想。<ref name=":34" /><ref name="HurrahChiloe">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|title=Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204201413/http://www.darwin-online.org.uk./EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|archivedate=4 December 2008}}</ref>
[[文件:HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens.jpg|缩略图|左|当比猎犬号调查南美洲海岸时，达尔文提出了关于地质学和巨型哺乳动物灭绝的理论。]]
[[文件:HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens.jpg|缩略图|左|当比猎犬号调查南美洲海岸时，达尔文提出了关于地质学和巨型哺乳动物灭绝的理论。]]
在第一次的猎犬号航行中，船上的3名火地岛人被抓获，然后他们在英国接受了一年的传教士教育。达尔文发现他们友好且文明，但在火地岛，他也遇到了区别如家养动物和野生动物不同的“悲惨的，退化的野蛮人”<ref name=":35" />。他仍然坚信，尽管存在这种多样性，但所有人类都具有共同的血统和改善文明的潜力。与科学家朋友不同，他现在认为人与动物之间没有不可逾越的鸿沟<ref name=":36" />。一年后，该教育任务停止了，其中一位他们曾取名为杰米·巴顿Jemmy Button的火地岛人过着与其他当地人一样的生活，娶了一位妻子，而且他不愿再返回英国。<ref name=":37" />
在第一次的猎犬号航行中，船上的3名火地岛人被抓获，然后他们在英国接受了一年的传教士教育。达尔文发现他们友好且文明，但在火地岛，他也遇到了区别如家养动物和野生动物不同的“悲惨的，退化的野蛮人”<ref name=":35" />。他仍然坚信，尽管存在这种多样性，但所有人类都具有共同的血统和改善文明的潜力。与科学家朋友不同，他现在认为人与动物之间没有不可逾越的鸿沟<ref name=":36" />。一年后，该教育任务停止了，其中一位他们曾取名为杰米·巴顿Jemmy Button的火地岛人过着与其他当地人一样的生活，娶了一位妻子，而且他不愿再返回英国。<ref name=":37" />
达尔文于1835年在智利经历了一次地震，并看到土地刚刚被抬高的迹象，包括在涨潮时搁浅的蚌床。在安第斯山脉的高处，他还看到了贝壳，以及在沙滩上生长的几棵化石树。他因此得到的理论是，随着土地的上升，海洋岛屿沉没，周围的珊瑚礁逐渐形成环礁。<ref name=":38" /><ref name="atolls" />
达尔文于1835年在智利经历了一次地震，并看到土地刚刚被抬高的迹象，包括在涨潮时搁浅的蚌床。在安第斯山脉的高处，他还看到了贝壳，以及在沙滩上生长的几棵化石树。他因此得到的理论是，随着土地的上升，海洋岛屿沉没，周围的珊瑚礁逐渐形成环礁。<ref name=":38" /><ref name="atolls" />
在地理意义上新发现的加拉帕戈斯群岛上，达尔文寻找证据证明野生生物具有“创造中心”这一观点，他发现了智利存在一种类似的，但在各个岛屿之间又有所不同的知更鸟。他听说根据乌龟壳略有变化的形状，可以得知它们来自哪个岛，但最后他即使食用了船上的乌龟，也未能将它们收集起来。<ref name="k356" /><ref name=":39" />在澳大利亚，存活着鼠袋鼠和鸭嘴兽似乎很不寻常，以至于达尔文依稀觉得好像两个不同的造物者在工作<ref name=Crows>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|title=Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction to the Sydney Notebook|accessdate=2 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114015611/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|archivedate=14 January 2009}}</ref>。他发现原住民“幽默愉快”，并注意到本岛上那些欧洲定居点对原住民的文化个性的影响，促使其消失。<ref name=":40" />
菲茨罗伊研究了科科斯基林群岛环礁的形成方式，并为达尔文的理论提供了支持<ref name="atolls" />。随后他开始撰写猎犬号航行的官方叙事，在阅读达尔文的日记后，他提议将其纳入其中<ref name=Letter301>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 301 – Darwin, C.R. to Darwin, C.S., 29 Apr 1836|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084605/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|archivedate=5 December 2008|access-date=3 September 2008}}</ref>。最终，《达尔文日记Darwin's Journal》被改写为单独的第三卷，归类为自然史。<ref name=":41" />
在南非的开普敦，达尔文和菲茨罗伊会见了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel，约翰曾写过信给莱尔，称赞他的均变论是非常大胆的猜测，将“近乎玄学的概念，由其他未知物种替代已灭绝的物种”，看作是“与奇迹般的过程形成鲜明对比的自然现象”。<ref name="Rascals" />
在南非的开普敦，达尔文和菲茨罗伊会见了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel，约翰曾写过信给莱尔，称赞他的均变论是非常大胆的猜测，将“近乎玄学的概念，由其他未知物种替代已灭绝的物种”，看作是“与奇迹般的过程形成鲜明对比的自然现象”。<ref name="Rascals" />
达尔文在返航时整理了他的笔记，他写道，他对知更鸟，乌龟和福克兰群岛的狐狸的物种相似性和区别不断产生怀疑，因为“这些事实破坏了物种的稳定性”，所以他在“破坏”前面谨慎地加上了“可能将会”<ref name="xix" />。他后来写道，这些事实“似乎让我对物种起源有了一些了解”。<ref name=":42" />
=== 达尔文进化论的诞生 ===
=== 达尔文进化论的诞生 ===
[[文件:Charles Darwin by G. Richmond.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文年轻时，就成为了科学精英。该肖像由乔治·里士满George Richmond创作。]]
[[文件:Charles Darwin by G. Richmond.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文年轻时，就成为了科学精英。该肖像由乔治·里士满George Richmond创作。]]
当达尔文回到英国的时候，他已经是科学界的名人了。因为1835年12月，汉斯洛专为某些博物学家们出版了达尔文的地质学书信册，从而提高了他以前的学生声誉<ref name=":43" />。1836年10月2日，这艘船停泊在康沃尔郡的法尔茅斯。达尔文立马开始了漫长的教练旅程，他回到什鲁斯伯里的家并探望亲戚。随后，他急忙去剑桥看汉斯洛，汉斯洛建议他去找那些能够分类他收集的动物名单，并同意采集植物标本的博物学家。达尔文的父亲负责投资，使他的儿子成为一名自费的绅士科学家，而兴奋的达尔文则前往伦敦一家机构，寻找专家来描述他的那些藏品。当时英国的动物学家们积压了大量工作，因为大英帝国促进和鼓励动物学们进行自然历史的收集，而且将标本留在仓库中也确实危险。
当达尔文回到英国的时候，他已经是科学界的名人了。因为1835年12月，汉斯洛专为某些博物学家们出版了达尔文的地质学书信册，从而提高了他以前的学生声誉<ref name=":43" />。1836年10月2日，这艘船停泊在康沃尔郡的法尔茅斯。达尔文立马开始了漫长的教练旅程，他回到什鲁斯伯里的家并探望亲戚。随后，他急忙去剑桥看汉斯洛，汉斯洛建议他去找那些能够分类他收集的动物名单，并同意采集植物标本的博物学家。达尔文的父亲负责投资，使他的儿子成为一名自费的绅士科学家，而兴奋的达尔文则前往伦敦一家机构，寻找专家来描述他的那些藏品。当时英国的动物学家们积压了大量工作，因为大英帝国促进和鼓励动物学们进行自然历史的收集，而且将标本留在仓库中也确实危险。
查尔斯·莱尔于10月29日首次与达尔文会面，并很快将他介绍给了崭露头角的解剖学家理查德·欧文Richard Owen，欧文可以使用皇家外科医学院的设施，因此他可以处理达尔文收集的化石。欧文也在随后发现了令人惊讶的成果，包括已灭绝的巨大地面树懒以及大地懒，一个近乎完整的伏地懒全骨，和一只河马大小的啮齿动物般的头骨，名为Toxodon，类似于巨大的水豚。还有一些来自雕齿兽盔甲的碎片--达尔文最初以为它是巨大犰狳类动物<ref name=":44" /><ref name="k206" />。所有这些灭绝的生物发现与南美的生物物种有关。<ref name=":45" />
查尔斯·莱尔于10月29日首次与达尔文会面，并很快将他介绍给了崭露头角的解剖学家理查德·欧文Richard Owen，欧文可以使用皇家外科医学院的设施，因此他可以处理达尔文收集的化石。欧文也在随后发现了令人惊讶的成果，包括已灭绝的巨大地面树懒以及大地懒，一个近乎完整的伏地懒全骨，和一只河马大小的啮齿动物般的头骨，名为Toxodon，类似于巨大的水豚。还有一些来自雕齿兽盔甲的碎片--达尔文最初以为它是巨大犰狳类动物<ref name=":44" /><ref name="k206" />。所有这些灭绝的生物发现与南美的生物物种有关。<ref name=":45" />
同年12月中旬，达尔文寄宿在剑桥，整理他航行中收集的动植物化石标本并重新开始写他的期刊论文<ref name=":46" />。他写的第一篇论文表明了南美大陆正在缓慢上升。他得到了莱尔的热情支持，于1837年1月4日将其发给了伦敦地质学会。当天，他向动物学协会展示了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家约翰·古尔德John Gould很快宣布，达尔文认为的加拉帕戈斯鸟类是黑鸟 -- “喙喙”和十二种雀科的杂交种。2月17日，达尔文被选入理事会地质学会，莱尔的总统发言介绍了欧文关于达尔文化石的发现，并强调了物种的地理连续性可以支撑他的均变论观点。<ref name=":47" />
同年12月中旬，达尔文寄宿在剑桥，整理他航行中收集的动植物化石标本并重新开始写他的期刊论文<ref name=":46" />。他写的第一篇论文表明了南美大陆正在缓慢上升。他得到了莱尔的热情支持，于1837年1月4日将其发给了伦敦地质学会。当天，他向动物学协会展示了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家约翰·古尔德John Gould很快宣布，达尔文认为的加拉帕戈斯鸟类是黑鸟 -- “喙喙”和十二种雀科的杂交种。2月17日，达尔文被选入理事会地质学会，莱尔的总统发言介绍了欧文关于达尔文化石的发现，并强调了物种的地理连续性可以支撑他的均变论观点。<ref name=":47" />
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref name=":49">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref name=":49">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage<ref name=":48" />，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000">马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变<ref name=":49" />这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<ref name="Rascals" />
来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref>，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000">马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变<ref name=":49" />这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<ref name="Rascals" />