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第43行： − '''Charles Robert Darwin''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name=frs /> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718234042/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin |date=18 July 2014 }} entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English [[natural history#Before 1900|naturalist]], [[geologist]] and [[biologist]],<ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> best known for his contributions to the science of [[evolution]].{{Ref label|A|I|none}} His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from [[common ancestors]] is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], he introduced his scientific theory that this [[Phylogenetics|branching pattern]] of [[evolution]] resulted from a process that he called [[natural selection]], in which the [[struggle for existence]] has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004| pp=79–111}}</ref> Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" /> − + 第59行：
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第603行： − + − + − + + − He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell]] in her 1875 book ''[[The Sexes Throughout Nature]]''.<ref name=Vandermassen>{{cite journal |author=Vandermassen, Griet |title=Sexual Selection: A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial |journal=European Journal of Women's Studies |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=9 |doi=10.1177/1350506804039812 |pages=11–13 |ref=harv |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.3672 |s2cid=145221350 }}</ref>+ − 他认为男人优于女人是性别选择的结果，安托瓦内特·布朗·布莱克威尔Antoinette Brown Blackwell在1875年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 大自然中的性别The Sexes Throughout Nature </font>'''》一书中对此观点提出了质疑。<ref name="Vandermassen" /> − − − − − Darwin was intrigued by his [[half-cousin]] [[Francis Galton]]'s argument, introduced in 1865, that [[Historiometry|statistical analysis]] of [[heredity]] showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In ''The Descent of Man'', Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear [[utopian]], plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.<ref name=":140">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=556–557, 572, 598}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=180 167–173], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=419 402–403]}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|title=Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin|accessdate=8 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102150434/http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|archivedate=2 January 2009}}</ref> Francis Galton named this field of study "[[eugenics]]" in 1883.{{Ref label|H|VIII|1}} After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies.<ref name=barta/> − − 达尔文对表兄弟弗朗西斯·高尔顿Francis Galton在1865年提出的论点深感兴趣，弗朗西斯认为，通过遗传的统计分析，可以表明道德和精神上的人类特征可以被继承，并且动物繁殖的原理也可以适用于人类。达尔文在《人类的由来》中指出，帮助弱者生存并使之拥有家庭，可能会失去自然选择带来的好处，但他又警告说，拒绝提供援助将磨灭人类同情的本性，即“我们本性中最崇高的部分”，他认为诸如教育之类的因素可能更为重要。当高尔顿建议发表其研究成果以鼓励“有天赋的人”之间通婚时，达尔文预见了实际的困难，这是“唯一可行的方案，但我担心的是乌托邦式的，改善人类进程的计划会因此产生”。他宁愿简单地宣传继承的重要性，而将决定权留给个人<ref name=":140" />。弗朗西斯·高尔顿在1883年将这一研究领域命名为“优生学”。达尔文去世后，他的理论被引用来促进优生政策的推行。<ref name="barta" /> − − − − {{Further|Darwinism|Eugenics|Social Darwinism}} − − − Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments. − + − Thomas Malthus had argued that [[Malthusian catastrophe|population growth beyond resources]] was ordained by God to get humans to [[Protestant work ethic|work productively]] and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify [[workhouse]]s and [[laissez-faire economics]].<ref name=wm>{{harvnb|Wilkins|1997}}<br />{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and [[Herbert Spencer]]'s 1851 book ''Social Statics'' based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.<ref name=":141">{{Harvnb|Sweet|2004}}</ref> − − 托马斯·马尔萨斯认为，上帝放任人口增长超过资源供给，是为了使人类更有生产力地工作，并抑制了家庭的组建。这在1830年代被用于证明工作场所和自由放任经济学的合理性<ref name="wm" />。当时，进化论被认为具有社会意义，赫伯特·斯宾塞Herbert Spencer在其1851年的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会静力学Social Statics </font>'''》中以拉马克进化论为基础，阐述了人类自由和个人自由的思想。<ref name=":141" /> − − − − − Soon after the ''Origin'' was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term ''Darwinism'' was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "[[survival of the fittest]]" as free-market progress, and [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s [[polygenism|polygenistic]] ideas of [[Ernst Haeckel#Polygenism and racial theory|human development]]. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, [[colonialism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus [[pacifism|pacifists]], socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.<ref name=":142">{{Harvnb|Paul|2003|pp=223–225}}</ref> Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.<ref name=":143">{{Harvnb|Bannister|1989}}</ref> − − 《物种起源》在1859年出版后不久，批评家们嘲笑达尔文对生存斗争的描述是在为当时英国工业资本主义的马尔萨斯主义辩护。后来达尔文主义一词开始用于进化思想，包括斯宾塞Spencer的“适者生存”思想和自由市场的进步，以及恩斯特·海克尔Ernst Haeckel的人类发展多元论。作家利用自然选择来主张各种经常相互矛盾的意识形态，例如放任自由 “狗吃狗”的资本主义，殖民主义和帝国主义。然而，达尔文的整体自然观包括了“一个人对另一个人的依赖”。因此，和平主义者，社会主义者，自由社会改革者和无政府主义者（例如彼得·克罗波特金Peter Kropotkin）都强调了合作对于物种内部斗争的价值<ref name=":142" />。达尔文本人坚称，社会政策不应仅仅以斗争和自然选择的观念为指导。<ref name=":143" /> − + − After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian]] [[genetics]]. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and [[eugenics in the United States]] introduced [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, [[Nazi eugenics]] brought the field into disrepute.{{Ref label|H|VIII|2}} + − The term "[[Social Darwinism]]" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by [[Richard Hofstadter]] to attack the [[laissez-faire]] conservatism of those like [[William Graham Sumner]] who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.<ref name=":144">{{Harvnb|Paul|2003}}<br />{{Harvnb|Kotzin|2004}}</ref><ref name=wm /> − − “社会达尔文主义”一词在1890年代左右很少使用，但在1940年代作为贬义词而流行，由理查德·霍夫施塔特Richard Hofstadter用来抨击自由放任的保守主义派，像是威廉·格雷厄姆·萨姆纳William Graham Sumner一样反对改革和社会主义的人。从那时起，它就被那些认为进化论会导致严重的道德后果的反对者滥用。<ref name=":144" /><ref name="wm" /> + − {{details|Charles Darwin bibliography}} − − − Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of [[coral atoll]]s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on [[barnacle]]s. While ''On the Origin of Species'' dominates perceptions of his work, ''The Descent of Man'' and ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' had considerable impact, and his books on plants including ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]'' were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Balfour|1882}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}<br />{{Harvnb|Anonymous|1882}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Brummitt|first = R. K.|author2=C. E. Powell|title = Authors of Plant Names |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |year = 1992 |isbn = 978-1-84246-085-6}}</ref> − − Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. − − 达尔文是一位著作等身的学者。即使在还没有发表有关进化的论文时，他还是《猎犬号》的作者、在南美洲发表并解决了珊瑚环礁形成难题的地质学家以及发表了有关藤壶权威著作的生物学家。虽然《物种起源》在他作品集中占了主导地位，但《人的由来》和《人类与动物的情感表达》同样产生了巨大的影响。另外他关于植物的著作有《植物运动的力量》以及他的遗作《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用》，都是业界举足轻重的创新研究成果。 − + − + − + − + − + − * [[表亲的名单List of coupled cousins]] − * [[重复独立发现发明列表List of multiple discoveries]] − * [[重复独立发现发明Multiple discovery]] − * [[达尔文肖像列表Portraits of Charles Darwin]] − * [[不知名鸟类的蛋Tinamou egg]] − * [[普适的达尔文主义Universal Darwinism]] − * [[小行星1991达尔文1991 Darwin]] + − + − + 第705行：
第664行： − “多年来，我收集了很多关于人类的起源或由来的笔记，我无意对此主题进行发布，更确切地说是我决定不发表，因为我认为这仅是个人观点，是我应由此对自己的观点产生质疑，而非大众。在我《物种起源》首版中，足以表明通过这项工作，‘将对人类的起源及其历史产生新的领悟。’这意味着，在尊重人类在地球上所有的表现行为前提下，我们必须将其与任何有机物统一在一起<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=14&itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text 1]}}</ref> 。”在1874年第二版的序言中，达尔文增加了对第二点的阐述：“一些批评家说过，当我发现无法通过自然选择来解释人的许多结构细节时，我发明了性选择。但是，我在第一版的《物种起源》中就对这一原则给出了可以相当清晰的草图，我在那里就指出过它也适用于人类。”<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1874|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F944&viewtype=text vi]}}</ref> + 第720行：
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第1,448行： − − == 相关链接 == − − * The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online – Darwin Online; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews − * 查尔斯·达尔文在线全集–达尔文在线；达尔文的出版物，私人论文和书目，包括传记，讣告和评论的补充作品。 − − * •Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary − * 达尔文相关作品全文和注释，以完整反映1867年的情况，并附带所有其他内容的摘要和注释页。 − − * Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg − * 查尔斯·达尔文在古腾堡计划中的作品 − − * Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at Internet Archive − * 互联网档案馆收集的关于查尔斯·达尔文或与之相关的作品 − − * Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) − * Charles Darwin在LibriVox上的作品（公共领域有声读物） − − * Darwin Manuscript Project − * 达尔文手稿项目 − − * "Archival material relating to Charles Darwin". UK National Archives. − * “与查尔斯·达尔文有关的档案材料”，来自于英国国家档案馆。 − − * Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Darwin, Charles Robert" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. − * 《达尔文，查尔斯·罗伯特》（1911），休斯·奇索姆Chisholm编辑。不列颠百科全书（第11版），来自于剑桥大学出版社。 − − * View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwin at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library. − * 查尔斯·达尔文拥有和注释的书籍，来自于在线生物多样性遗产图书馆。 − − * Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital Library − * 数字化达尔文手稿，来自于剑桥数字图书馆 − − * Portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, London − * 查尔斯·达尔文肖像，伦敦国家肖像画廊 − − * Newspaper clippings about Charles Darwin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW − * 查尔斯·达尔文的剪报，来自于德国国家经济图书馆ZBW 20世纪新闻档案 − − {{sisterlinks|s=Author:Charles Robert Darwin|wikt=Darwinian|species_author=Charles Robert Darwin|m=no|mw=no|voy=no|b=General Biology/Gallery of Biologists/Charles Darwin|v=no}} − {{Library resources box − |onlinebooks=yes − |by=yes − |viaf= 27063124 − |label=Charles Darwin − }} − * [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]] – [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews − * [http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary − * {{Gutenberg author |id=Darwin,+Charles | name=Charles Darwin}} − * {{Internet Archive author |name=Charles Robert Darwin}} − * {{Librivox author |id=166}} − * [http://darwin.amnh.org/ Darwin Manuscript Project] − * {{UK National Archives ID}} − * {{Cite EB1911| wstitle=Darwin, Charles Robert}} − * View books owned and annotated by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/collection/darwinlibrary Charles Darwin] at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library. − * [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/darwin_mss Digitised Darwin Manuscripts] in [[Cambridge Digital Library]] − *{{NPG name}} − * {{PM20|FID=pe/003703}}<br /> − {{Darwin}} − {{Evolution}} − {{Ethology}} − {{Zoology}} − {{Evolutionary psychology}} − {{Copley Medallists 1851–1900}} − {{FRS 1839}} − {{Authority control|MBA=}} 第1,582行：
第1,454行： − {{DEFAULTSORT:Darwin, Charles}}+ − [[Category:Charles Darwin| ]]+ − [[Category:1809 births]]+ − [[Category:1882 deaths]]+ − [[Category:19th-century British biologists]]+ − [[Category:19th-century English writers]]+ − [[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge]]+ − [[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh]]+ − [[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations]]+ − [[Category:British carcinologists]]+ − [[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]+ − [[Category:Circumnavigators of the globe]] − [[Category:Coleopterists]] − [[Category:Darwin–Wedgwood family]] − [[Category:Deaths from coronary thrombosis]] − [[Category:English abolitionists]] − [[Category:English agnostics]] − [[Category:English Anglicans]] − [[Category:English entomologists]] − [[Category:English geologists]] − [[Category:English naturalists]] − [[Category:English sceptics]] − [[Category:English travel writers]] − [[Category:Ethologists]] − [[Category:Evolutionary biologists]] − [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] − [[Category:Fellows of the Linnean Society of London]] − [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Entomological Society]] − [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society]] − [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]] − [[Category:Fellows of the Zoological Society of London]] − [[Category:History of ideas]] − [[Category:Human evolution theorists]] − [[Category:Human evolution]] − [[Category:Independent scientists]] − [[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]] − [[Category:Members of the Athenaeum Club, London]] − [[Category:Members of the Lincean Academy]] − − − − − − − − − −
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'''查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 Charles Robert Darwin'''<ref name=frs />（1809年2月12日-1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家<ref name=":3" />。他因对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着共同祖先，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，同时被认为是科学的理论基础<ref name=":4">{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref>。在与Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由被他称为'''自然选择 Natural selection'''的过程产生的。在这个过程中，生物为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''选择性育种 Selective breeding'''<ref name="Larson79-111" />的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文当选为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一<ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011|work=New Scientist|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|archivedate=11 February 2011}}</ref>。为了纪念他，人们为他在威斯敏斯特教堂<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />举行了葬礼，这是至高的荣誉。
'''查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 Charles Robert Darwin'''<ref name=frs />（1809年2月12日-1882年4月19日）是英国博物学家，地质学家和生物学家<ref name=":3" />。他因对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为，所有的生命物种都拥有着共同祖先，只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受，同时被认为是科学的理论基础<ref name=":4">{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref>。在与Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中，他详细介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式是由被他称为'''自然选择 Natural selection'''的过程产生的。在这个过程中，生物为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''选择性育种 Selective breeding'''<ref name="Larson79-111" />的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文当选为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一<ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011|work=New Scientist|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|archivedate=11 February 2011}}</ref>。为了纪念他，人们为他在威斯敏斯特教堂<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />举行了葬礼，这是至高的荣誉。
达尔文在1859年出版的《物种起源 On the Origin of Species 》<ref name=":6">{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |authorlink=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 978-0-8018-0222-5|page=iv}}</ref>一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现'''<font color="#ff8000"> 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>'''，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，并且认为自然选择是进化的基本机制<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="b3847" />。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":9">{{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 978-1-55111-337-1|page=15 |url= }}</ref>。
达尔文在1859年出版的《物种起源 On the Origin of Species 》<ref name=":6">{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 978-0-8018-0222-5|page=iv}}</ref>一书中，以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是，仍然有许多人持有不同的解释，认为自然选择的作用很小，直到二十世纪三十到五十年代，才开始出现''' 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>'''，之后逐渐形成了广泛共识，并且认为自然选择是进化的基本机制<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="b3847" />。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论，解释了生命的多样性<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":9">{{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 978-1-55111-337-1|page=15 |url= }}</ref>。
== 个人简介==
== 个人简介==
=== 早年生活和教育经历 ===
=== 早年生活和教育经历 ===
查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡的什鲁斯伯<ref name=":16">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Desmond|first=Adrian J.|title=Charles Darwin|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 September 2002|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite web|url= http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title= The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author= John H. Wahlert|date= 11 June 2001|work= Darwin and Darwinism|publisher= [[Baruch College]]|accessdate= 26 November 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archivedate= 6 December 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref>里山顶的小屋里，在六个孩子中排行第五。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生和金融家罗伯特·达尔文 Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文nSusannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文 Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德 Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《动物法则 Zoonomia》（1794年）中称赞了进化和共同祖先这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中也含有一些尚未成熟的观念，这些观点也成为他孙子未来所提出的理念的雏形<ref name=":18">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–40]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref>。
查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡的什鲁斯伯<ref name=":16">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Desmond|first=Adrian J.|title=Charles Darwin|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 September 2002|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite web|url= http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title= The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author= John H. Wahlert|date= 11 June 2001|work= Darwin and Darwinism|publisher= [[Baruch College]]|accessdate= 26 November 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archivedate= 6 December 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref>里山顶的小屋里，在六个孩子中排行第五。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生和金融家罗伯特·达尔文 Robert Darwin，母亲苏珊娜·达尔文nSusannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文 Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德 Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《动物法则 Zoonomia》（1794年）中称赞了进化和共同祖先这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现，其中也含有一些尚未成熟的观念，这些观点也成为他孙子未来所提出的理念的雏形<ref name=":18">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–40]|url-access=registration}}</ref>。
[[文件:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|缩略图|左|1816年，埃伦·夏普莱斯Ellen Sharples用粉笔绘制了七岁抱着盆栽的查尔斯·达尔文Charles Darwin]]
[[文件:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|缩略图|左|1816年，埃伦·夏普莱斯Ellen Sharples用粉笔绘制了七岁抱着盆栽的查尔斯·达尔文Charles Darwin]]
同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学拥有欧洲最大的博物馆之一。<ref name=":20" />
同时期，达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程，涵盖了地质学，包括''' 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与''' 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩，但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类，并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作，当时该大学拥有欧洲最大的博物馆之一。<ref name=":20" />
达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲大为恼火，于是他特地将达尔文送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试资格标准，于是他在1828年1月选择了普通学位课程<ref name=":21" />。然而相较于学习，他更喜欢骑马和射击。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，并让达尔文了解了昆虫学，促使他开始了甲虫收藏<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–58]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|author=Darwin|first=Charles|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin|publisher=D. Appleton|year=1901|volume=vol. 1|location=|pages=43–44|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924204343/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|url-status=live}}</ref>。渐渐地，他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯 James Francis Stephens的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|editor-last=Van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829-32)|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2020-07-03|website=Darwin Online|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref>（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯的引荐，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛<ref name=":02" />的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》<ref name="dar57" />（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。<ref name=":23" />
达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲大为恼火，于是他特地将达尔文送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位，因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试资格标准，于是他在1828年1月选择了普通学位课程<ref name=":21" />。然而相较于学习，他更喜欢骑马和射击。在达尔文入学的头几个月，他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，并让达尔文了解了昆虫学，促使他开始了甲虫收藏<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–58]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|author=Darwin|first=Charles|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin|publisher=D. Appleton|year=1901|volume=vol. 1|location=|pages=43–44|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924204343/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|url-status=live}}</ref>。渐渐地，他对此产生了极大的兴趣，并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯 James Francis Stephens的《''' 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|editor-last=Van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829-32)|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2020-07-03|website=Darwin Online|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref>（1892-32年）中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯的引荐，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛<ref name=":02" />的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家，他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学，并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时，达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《''' 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》<ref name="dar57" />（1794）中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色，在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。<ref name=":23" />
为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥待到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》和《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了生物的适应性行为其实是神通过自然法则行事<ref name="syd5-7" />。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。<ref name="db" /><ref name=":24" />
为了能够顺利毕业，达尔文必须在剑桥待到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《''' 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》和《''' 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》（于1802年首次出版），该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解，解释了生物的适应性行为其实是神通过自然法则行事<ref name="syd5-7" />。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《''' 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》（1831），其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。<ref name="db" /><ref name=":24" />
航行后来延误到1831年12月27日启航，而且它持续了将近五年。正如菲茨罗伊所希望的那样，达尔文大部分时间都在土地上进行地质调查和自然历史采集<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="kix" /> ，而HMS Beagle则在调查和绘制海岸图。他仔细记录了自己的观察和理论推测，并在航行中不定期将标本与信件一起寄到剑桥，其中包括他的家人日记<ref name=":27" />。他在地质学、甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面具有一定的专业知识，但在其它所有领域都是新手。不过他会妥善收集标本并供专家评估。<ref name=fnGal>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|accessdate=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archivedate=1 September 2009|author2-link=Randal Keynes}}</ref>尽管遭受晕船之苦，达尔文还是在船上写下了大量笔记。他的大部分动物学笔记都是关于海洋无脊椎动物的，自无风期的浮游生物开始。<ref name="kix" /><ref name="plankton" />
航行后来延误到1831年12月27日启航，而且它持续了将近五年。正如菲茨罗伊所希望的那样，达尔文大部分时间都在土地上进行地质调查和自然历史采集<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="kix" /> ，而HMS Beagle则在调查和绘制海岸图。他仔细记录了自己的观察和理论推测，并在航行中不定期将标本与信件一起寄到剑桥，其中包括他的家人日记<ref name=":27" />。他在地质学、甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面具有一定的专业知识，但在其它所有领域都是新手。不过他会妥善收集标本并供专家评估。<ref name=fnGal>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|accessdate=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archivedate=1 September 2009}}</ref>尽管遭受晕船之苦，达尔文还是在船上写下了大量笔记。他的大部分动物学笔记都是关于海洋无脊椎动物的，自无风期的浮游生物开始。<ref name="kix" /><ref name="plankton" />
达尔文在佛得角圣哈戈上岸的第一站中，发现火山岩峭壁中高处白色带中包含贝壳。菲茨罗伊为他提供了查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 地质学原理Principles of Geology </font>'''》的第一卷，其中阐述了土地在各个时期缓慢上升或下降的统一概念。达尔文看到了莱尔所作的一切，他也在思索着写地质学<ref name=":28" />著作的想法。当他们到达巴西时，达尔文对热带森林<ref name=":29" />感到惊喜好奇，但也因目睹奴隶制的景象而感到愤怒，并与菲茨罗伊产生了争执<ref name=":30" />。
达尔文在佛得角圣哈戈上岸的第一站中，发现火山岩峭壁中高处白色带中包含贝壳。菲茨罗伊为他提供了查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell的《''' 地质学原理Principles of Geology </font>'''》的第一卷，其中阐述了土地在各个时期缓慢上升或下降的统一概念。达尔文看到了莱尔所作的一切，他也在思索着写地质学<ref name=":28" />著作的想法。当他们到达巴西时，达尔文对热带森林<ref name=":29" />感到惊喜好奇，但也因目睹奴隶制的景象而感到愤怒，并与菲茨罗伊产生了争执<ref name=":30" />。
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref name=":49">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref name=":49">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref>，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000">马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变<ref name=":49" />这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<ref name="Rascals" />
来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref>，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同''' 物种演变 Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变<ref name=":49" />这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<ref name="Rascals" />
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'', and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name=JvW /><ref name="134e">{{cite web | title = Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | accessdate = 4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archivedate = 18 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name=JvW /><ref name=":65">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 264–265}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 385–388}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'', and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name=JvW /><ref name="134e">{{cite web | title = Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | accessdate = 4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archivedate = 18 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name=JvW /><ref name=":65">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 264–265}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 385–388}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':
后来达尔文继续在伦敦进行研究，他广泛阅读相关著作，包括马尔萨斯的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人口原理An Essay on the Principle of Population </font>'''》第六版。1838年9月28日，他指出“人类的人口在不受控制的情况下每25年就会增加一倍，或者以几何比例增加”，这种呈几何级数增长的速度，会造成所谓的马尔萨斯灾难，人口很快会超出了粮食供应的极限。达尔文已做好充分的准备，可以将其与坎多尔Candolle的“物种争斗”进行比较，以及野生动植物之间为生存而进行的斗争，这解释了一个物种的数量是如何大致保持稳定。由于物种的繁殖总是超出可用资源，那么有利的变异将使生物能更好地生存下来并将变异传给其后代，而不利的变异将逐渐消失。他写道，“所有楔入的最终原因，必须是找出适当的结构，并使之适应变化”，因此，“有人可能会说有十万个楔形力，试图将各种适应力推向自然经济的缝隙，或者更精确地说通过淘汰弱者来形成这种缝隙。”<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="134e" /> 这最终将导致新物种的形成。<ref name="JvW" /><ref name=":65" /> 正如他后来在自传中写道：
后来达尔文继续在伦敦进行研究，他广泛阅读相关著作，包括马尔萨斯的《''' 人口原理An Essay on the Principle of Population </font>'''》第六版。1838年9月28日，他指出“人类的人口在不受控制的情况下每25年就会增加一倍，或者以几何比例增加”，这种呈几何级数增长的速度，会造成所谓的马尔萨斯灾难，人口很快会超出了粮食供应的极限。达尔文已做好充分的准备，可以将其与坎多尔Candolle的“物种争斗”进行比较，以及野生动植物之间为生存而进行的斗争，这解释了一个物种的数量是如何大致保持稳定。由于物种的繁殖总是超出可用资源，那么有利的变异将使生物能更好地生存下来并将变异传给其后代，而不利的变异将逐渐消失。他写道，“所有楔入的最终原因，必须是找出适当的结构，并使之适应变化”，因此，“有人可能会说有十万个楔形力，试图将各种适应力推向自然经济的缝隙，或者更精确地说通过淘汰弱者来形成这种缝隙。”<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="134e" /> 这最终将导致新物种的形成。<ref name="JvW" /><ref name=":65" /> 正如他后来在自传中写道：
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref name=":87">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 412–441, 457–458, 462–463}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref>
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref name=":87">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 412–441, 457–458, 462–463}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref>
到1856年初，达尔文一直在研究卵和种子能够成功地跨越海水将物种传播到另一个大陆。胡克也越来越对传统观点 -- 即物种是恒定不变的 -- 产生怀疑。但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫黎Thomas Henry Huxley仍然坚决反对物种的演变说。莱文对达尔文的猜测很感兴趣，但却没有意识到其影响。当他阅读到阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的论文《论规范新物种介绍的法则》时，他看到了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他发表文章以确立优先地位。尽管达尔文没有看到任何威胁，但他于1856年5月14日开始写一篇简短的论文。寻找能解决困难问题的答案使他反复受挫，他将计划扩展到一本名为《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural Selection </font>'''》的“物种全科书”，其中包括他“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从全球博物学家那里（包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士）获得信息和标本。1857年，他添加了一个小节标题；“人类种族理论”，不过他并没有添加相关主题的文字。同年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨·格雷Asa Gray发送了他详细的想法概述，包括《自然选择》一书的摘要，其中省略了人类起源和性别选择。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的来信，询问这本书是否会研究人类起源。他回答说，他会避免那个“充满偏见”的话题，同时达尔文鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说“我比你走得更远。”<ref name=":87" />
到1856年初，达尔文一直在研究卵和种子能够成功地跨越海水将物种传播到另一个大陆。胡克也越来越对传统观点 -- 即物种是恒定不变的 -- 产生怀疑。但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫黎Thomas Henry Huxley仍然坚决反对物种的演变说。莱文对达尔文的猜测很感兴趣，但却没有意识到其影响。当他阅读到阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的论文《论规范新物种介绍的法则》时，他看到了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他发表文章以确立优先地位。尽管达尔文没有看到任何威胁，但他于1856年5月14日开始写一篇简短的论文。寻找能解决困难问题的答案使他反复受挫，他将计划扩展到一本名为《''' 自然选择Natural Selection </font>'''》的“物种全科书”，其中包括他“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从全球博物学家那里（包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士）获得信息和标本。1857年，他添加了一个小节标题；“人类种族理论”，不过他并没有添加相关主题的文字。同年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨·格雷Asa Gray发送了他详细的想法概述，包括《自然选择》一书的摘要，其中省略了人类起源和性别选择。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的来信，询问这本书是否会研究人类起源。他回答说，他会避免那个“充满偏见”的话题，同时达尔文鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说“我比你走得更远。”<ref name=":87" />
Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref name=":88">Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name=":89">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=Van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref name=":90">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 466–470}}</ref>
Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref name=":88">Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name=":89">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=Van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref name=":90">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 466–470}}</ref>
1858年6月18日达尔文收到了华莱士的一篇关于自然选择的论文，当时他的论文才完成了部分。达尔文感到非常震惊，华莱士竟然领先了一步。不过达尔文当天应华莱士的要求将其发送给了莱尔<ref name=":88" /><ref name=":89" /> ，尽管华莱士没有要求出版，但达尔文建议莱尔将其发送给华莱士选择的任何期刊。他的家人后来因村庄里的孩子死于猩红热而陷入危机，因此他把事情交到了朋友手中。经过一番讨论，莱尔和胡克找不到可靠的方法让华莱士参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林内学会上联合发表《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 关于物种形成变种的趋势；以及通过自然选择方式使变种和物种永存On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection </font>'''》。6月28日晚上，达尔文的小儿子在经历了近一个星期的严重疾病后死于猩红热，此时达尔文心急如焚，无心参加发表会。<ref name=":90" />
1858年6月18日达尔文收到了华莱士的一篇关于自然选择的论文，当时他的论文才完成了部分。达尔文感到非常震惊，华莱士竟然领先了一步。不过达尔文当天应华莱士的要求将其发送给了莱尔<ref name=":88" /><ref name=":89" /> ，尽管华莱士没有要求出版，但达尔文建议莱尔将其发送给华莱士选择的任何期刊。他的家人后来因村庄里的孩子死于猩红热而陷入危机，因此他把事情交到了朋友手中。经过一番讨论，莱尔和胡克找不到可靠的方法让华莱士参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林内学会上联合发表《''' 关于物种形成变种的趋势；以及通过自然选择方式使变种和物种永存On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection </font>'''》。6月28日晚上，达尔文的小儿子在经历了近一个星期的严重疾病后死于猩红热，此时达尔文心急如焚，无心参加发表会。<ref name=":90" />
The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|accessdate=17 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archivedate=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin, with its ideas including [[higher criticism]] attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref name=":105">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 487–488, 500}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with [[natural theology]]''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to [[transmutation of species]], argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=":106">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref>
The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|accessdate=17 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archivedate=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin, with its ideas including [[higher criticism]] attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref name=":105">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 487–488, 500}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with [[natural theology]]''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to [[transmutation of species]], argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=":106">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref>
对此英格兰教会的反应好坏参半。达尔文的老剑桥导师塞奇威克Sedgwick和汉斯洛Henslow拒绝接受这些想法，但自由派牧师却将自然选择解释为上帝设计的工具，例如牧师查尔斯·金斯利Charles Kingsley则将其视为“与神一样崇高”<ref name="Darwinanddesign" />。1860年，七位自由派英国国教神学家发表了论文集和评论，转移了牧师对达尔文的关注，包括受到教会当局以异端邪说为由的极端批评。其中，巴登·鲍威尔Baden Powell辩称，是奇迹打破了上帝的律法，所以他们信仰无神论，并称赞“达尔文先生的著作非常透彻精妙，它为自然具有自我进化能力的基本原则提供了支持”<ref name=":105" />。阿萨·格雷Asa Gray与达尔文讨论了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 目的论Teleology </font>'''，达尔文引入并分发了格雷关于神导进化论的小册子。自然选择与自然神学并不矛盾。另外最著名的交锋是在英国科学促进协会内部的一次会议上，在公开的1860年牛津进化辩论中，牛津大学的主教塞缪尔·威尔伯福斯Samuel Wilberforce虽然不反对物种演变，但他仍然驳斥达尔文对人类是猿类后裔这一解释。而约瑟夫·胡克则强烈主张达尔文，还有托马斯·赫胥黎，他最著名的反驳是，他宁愿是猿猴的后代，也不愿是滥用礼物的人，该比喻象征着科学战胜了宗教。<ref name="Darwinanddesign" /><ref name=":106" />
对此英格兰教会的反应好坏参半。达尔文的老剑桥导师塞奇威克Sedgwick和汉斯洛Henslow拒绝接受这些想法，但自由派牧师却将自然选择解释为上帝设计的工具，例如牧师查尔斯·金斯利Charles Kingsley则将其视为“与神一样崇高”<ref name="Darwinanddesign" />。1860年，七位自由派英国国教神学家发表了论文集和评论，转移了牧师对达尔文的关注，包括受到教会当局以异端邪说为由的极端批评。其中，巴登·鲍威尔Baden Powell辩称，是奇迹打破了上帝的律法，所以他们信仰无神论，并称赞“达尔文先生的著作非常透彻精妙，它为自然具有自我进化能力的基本原则提供了支持”<ref name=":105" />。阿萨·格雷Asa Gray与达尔文讨论了''' 目的论Teleology </font>'''，达尔文引入并分发了格雷关于神导进化论的小册子。自然选择与自然神学并不矛盾。另外最著名的交锋是在英国科学促进协会内部的一次会议上，在公开的1860年牛津进化辩论中，牛津大学的主教塞缪尔·威尔伯福斯Samuel Wilberforce虽然不反对物种演变，但他仍然驳斥达尔文对人类是猿类后裔这一解释。而约瑟夫·胡克则强烈主张达尔文，还有托马斯·赫胥黎，他最著名的反驳是，他宁愿是猿猴的后代，也不愿是滥用礼物的人，该比喻象征着科学战胜了宗教。<ref name="Darwinanddesign" /><ref name=":106" />
Enquiries about insect [[pollination]] led in 1861 to novel studies of wild [[orchid]]s, showing adaptation of their flowers to [[Pollination syndrome|attract specific moths]] to each species and ensure [[heterosis|cross fertilisation]]. In 1862 ''[[Fertilisation of Orchids]]'' gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of [[vine|climbing plants]].<ref name=":111">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=50–55}}</ref> Admiring visitors included [[Ernst Haeckel]], a zealous proponent of ''Darwinismus'' incorporating [[Lamarckism]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s idealism.<ref name=":112">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest |title=The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866 |accessdate=6 March 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605110511/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/correspondence-volume-14 |archivedate=5 June 2010 }} Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012</ref> Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]].<ref name=":113">{{harvnb|Smith|1999}}.</ref>
Enquiries about insect [[pollination]] led in 1861 to novel studies of wild [[orchid]]s, showing adaptation of their flowers to [[Pollination syndrome|attract specific moths]] to each species and ensure [[heterosis|cross fertilisation]]. In 1862 ''[[Fertilisation of Orchids]]'' gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of [[vine|climbing plants]].<ref name=":111">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=50–55}}</ref> Admiring visitors included [[Ernst Haeckel]], a zealous proponent of ''Darwinismus'' incorporating [[Lamarckism]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s idealism.<ref name=":112">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest |title=The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866 |accessdate=6 March 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605110511/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/correspondence-volume-14 |archivedate=5 June 2010 }} Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012</ref> Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]].<ref name=":113">{{harvnb|Smith|1999}}.</ref>
他对昆虫授粉的研究推动了1861年对野生兰花进行的全新研究，结果表明它们的花体中同样具有适应性，花吸引特定的飞蛾进入每个物种并确保杂交。1862年，《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 兰花的传粉Fertilisation of Orchids </font>'''》首次详细展示了自然选择的力量，书中解释了复杂的生态关系，并提供可验证的预测。随着健康状况的下降，达尔文躺在房间里的病床上，房间里充满了许多创造性的实验，追踪攀援植物的运动轨迹<ref name=":111" />。拜访者包括恩斯特·海克尔Ernst Haeckel，他是达尔文主义的热心拥护者，融合了拉马克主义和歌德的理想主义<ref name=":112" />。尽管他越来越转向唯心论，华莱士仍然选择支持他。<ref name=":113" />
他对昆虫授粉的研究推动了1861年对野生兰花进行的全新研究，结果表明它们的花体中同样具有适应性，花吸引特定的飞蛾进入每个物种并确保杂交。1862年，《''' 兰花的传粉Fertilisation of Orchids </font>'''》首次详细展示了自然选择的力量，书中解释了复杂的生态关系，并提供可验证的预测。随着健康状况的下降，达尔文躺在房间里的病床上，房间里充满了许多创造性的实验，追踪攀援植物的运动轨迹<ref name=":111" />。拜访者包括恩斯特·海克尔Ernst Haeckel，他是达尔文主义的热心拥护者，融合了拉马克主义和歌德的理想主义<ref name=":112" />。尽管他越来越转向唯心论，华莱士仍然选择支持他。<ref name=":113" />
[[Charles Lyell|Lyell]] had already popularised human prehistory, and [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]] had shown that anatomically humans are apes.<ref name=B217 /> With ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented [[sexual selection]] to explain impractical animal features such as the [[peacock]]'s plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural [[Race (human categorization)|racial classification]], while emphasising that humans are all one species.<ref name=":115">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=402 385–405]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=339–343}}</ref> His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the [[evolutionary psychology|evolution of human psychology]] and its continuity with the [[ethology|behaviour of animals]]. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."<ref name=":116">{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=359–369}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.3&pageseq=145 133]}}</ref> His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<ref name=":117">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=422 405]}}</ref>
[[Charles Lyell|Lyell]] had already popularised human prehistory, and [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]] had shown that anatomically humans are apes.<ref name=B217 /> With ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented [[sexual selection]] to explain impractical animal features such as the [[peacock]]'s plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural [[Race (human categorization)|racial classification]], while emphasising that humans are all one species.<ref name=":115">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=402 385–405]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=339–343}}</ref> His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the [[evolutionary psychology|evolution of human psychology]] and its continuity with the [[ethology|behaviour of animals]]. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."<ref name=":116">{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=359–369}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.3&pageseq=145 133]}}</ref> His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<ref name=":117">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=422 405]}}</ref>
莱尔普及了人类史，赫胥黎则从解剖学上证明了人类是猿。达尔文在1871年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人类的由来及性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中，收集了大量证据来证明人类是动物 <ref name="B217" />-- 无论是生理上还是心理上的进化的连续性。并提出可以用性选择来解释无法说通的动物特征区别，例如孔雀的羽毛以及人类的文化演变，性别差异以及生理和文化种族的分类，同时他还强调所有人类都源于一个物种<ref name=":115" />。他的影像研究在1872年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》一书中得到了扩展，这是最早印有印刷照片的书籍之一，该书讨论了人类心理的演变及其与动物行为的连续性。这两本书都非常受欢迎，达尔文因此特别感动，因为他的观点得到普遍认可，特别是“每个人都在谈论它，并不会感到震惊”<ref name=":116" />。他总结道“他具有所有的高尚品格，充满同情心（即使是对最低贱的生物），他的仁爱不仅适用于他人，也适用于最卑微的生灵，他的神性智慧已经渗透到行动中。太阳系的构成（包括所有这些崇高的力量），都使人类在肉体中烙印上他出身低微且不可磨灭的印记。”<ref name=":117" />
莱尔普及了人类史，赫胥黎则从解剖学上证明了人类是猿。达尔文在1871年出版的《''' 人类的由来及性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中，收集了大量证据来证明人类是动物 <ref name="B217" />-- 无论是生理上还是心理上的进化的连续性。并提出可以用性选择来解释无法说通的动物特征区别，例如孔雀的羽毛以及人类的文化演变，性别差异以及生理和文化种族的分类，同时他还强调所有人类都源于一个物种<ref name=":115" />。他的影像研究在1872年出版的《''' 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》一书中得到了扩展，这是最早印有印刷照片的书籍之一，该书讨论了人类心理的演变及其与动物行为的连续性。这两本书都非常受欢迎，达尔文因此特别感动，因为他的观点得到普遍认可，特别是“每个人都在谈论它，并不会感到震惊”<ref name=":116" />。他总结道“他具有所有的高尚品格，充满同情心（即使是对最低贱的生物），他的仁爱不仅适用于他人，也适用于最卑微的生灵，他的神性智慧已经渗透到行动中。太阳系的构成（包括所有这些崇高的力量），都使人类在肉体中烙印上他出身低微且不可磨灭的印记。”<ref name=":117" />
His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, ''[[Insectivorous Plants (book)|Insectivorous Plants]], [[The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom]]'', different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]''. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including [[Mary Treat]], whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.<ref name=":118">[https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women Darwin's Women] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212213901/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women |date=12 February 2020 }} at [[Cambridge University]]</ref> His botanical work{{Ref label|I|IX|none}} was interpreted and popularised by various writers including [[Grant Allen]] and [[H. G. Wells]], and [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10359900&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0007087416000352 helped transform plant science] in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.
His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, ''[[Insectivorous Plants (book)|Insectivorous Plants]], [[The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom]]'', different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]''. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including [[Mary Treat]], whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.<ref name=":118">[https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women Darwin's Women] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212213901/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women |date=12 February 2020 }} at [[Cambridge University]]</ref> His botanical work{{Ref label|I|IX|none}} was interpreted and popularised by various writers including [[Grant Allen]] and [[H. G. Wells]], and [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10359900&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0007087416000352 helped transform plant science] in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.
达尔文依据这些与进化有关的实验研究还撰写出关于兰花的书籍，《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 食虫植物Insectivorous Plants </font>'''》，《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 异花授精与自体授精在植物界中的效果The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom </font>'''》，《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同种植物的不同花型The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species </font>'''》，《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 植物运动的力量The Power of Movement in Plants </font>'''》。他继续从全世界的科学记者那里收集信息并交流观点，像是玛丽·特里特Mary Treat，达尔文曾鼓励她坚持不懈地从事科学工作<ref name=":118" />。达尔文的植物学著作后来还得到了格兰特·艾伦Grant Allen和H·G·威尔斯H. G. Wells等众多作家的诠释和推广，并在19世纪后期和20世纪初推动了植物科学的发展。最后，他完成了《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用》。
达尔文依据这些与进化有关的实验研究还撰写出关于兰花的书籍，《''' 食虫植物Insectivorous Plants </font>'''》，《''' 异花授精与自体授精在植物界中的效果The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom </font>'''》，《''' 同种植物的不同花型The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species </font>'''》，《''' 植物运动的力量The Power of Movement in Plants </font>'''》。他继续从全世界的科学记者那里收集信息并交流观点，像是玛丽·特里特Mary Treat，达尔文曾鼓励她坚持不懈地从事科学工作<ref name=":118" />。达尔文的植物学著作后来还得到了格兰特·艾伦Grant Allen和H·G·威尔斯H. G. Wells等众多作家的诠释和推广，并在19世纪后期和20世纪初推动了植物科学的发展。最后，他完成了《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用》。
=== 逝世及葬礼 ===
=== 逝世及葬礼 ===
He died at [[Down House]] on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".<ref name=":119">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|title=[Reminiscences of Charles Darwin's last years.] CUL-DAR210.9|author=Darwin, Emma|authorlink=Emma Darwin|year=1882|accessdate=8 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080442/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at [[Downe]], but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, [[William Spottiswoode]] (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]], close to [[John Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]]. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.<ref name=":120">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=664–677}}</ref><ref name="Westminster Abbey CD">{{cite web | title=Westminster Abbey » Charles Darwin | website=Westminster Abbey » Home | date=2 January 2016 | url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | accessdate=2 January 2016 | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200905/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | archivedate=4 March 2016 | df=dmy-all }}<br />{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/burial.html Darwin's Burial]}}</ref>
He died at [[Down House]] on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".<ref name=":119">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|title=[Reminiscences of Charles Darwin's last years.] CUL-DAR210.9|author=Darwin, Emma|year=1882|accessdate=8 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080442/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at [[Downe]], but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, [[William Spottiswoode]] (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]], close to [[John Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]]. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.<ref name=":120">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=664–677}}</ref><ref name="Westminster Abbey CD">{{cite web | title=Westminster Abbey » Charles Darwin | website=Westminster Abbey » Home | date=2 January 2016 | url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | accessdate=2 January 2016 | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200905/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | archivedate=4 March 2016 | df=dmy-all }}<br />{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/burial.html Darwin's Burial]}}</ref>
达尔文于1882年4月19日在Down House逝世。在他遗言中，他对艾玛说道：“我一点也不害怕死亡。记住对我来说你是个好妻子，告诉我所有的孩子，记住他们对我有多好”。在她休息的时候，他反复告诉亨利埃塔和弗朗西斯：“我由你来照顾是多么的值得”。<ref name=":119" />他原本希望被葬在郡达温的圣玛丽墓地，但由于达尔文的同事请求，和议会通过的公开请愿，由威廉·斯波提斯伍德William Spottiswoode（皇家学会主席）安排了为他威斯敏斯特大教堂进行葬礼，那里靠近约翰·赫歇尔和艾萨克·牛顿。他的葬礼于4月26日星期三举行，有成千上万的人参加，包括家人，朋友，科学家，哲学家和政要。<ref name=":120" /><ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />
达尔文于1882年4月19日在Down House逝世。在他遗言中，他对艾玛说道：“我一点也不害怕死亡。记住对我来说你是个好妻子，告诉我所有的孩子，记住他们对我有多好”。在她休息的时候，他反复告诉亨利埃塔和弗朗西斯：“我由你来照顾是多么的值得”。<ref name=":119" />他原本希望被葬在郡达温的圣玛丽墓地，但由于达尔文的同事请求，和议会通过的公开请愿，由威廉·斯波提斯伍德William Spottiswoode（皇家学会主席）安排了为他威斯敏斯特大教堂进行葬礼，那里靠近约翰·赫歇尔和艾萨克·牛顿。他的葬礼于4月26日星期三举行，有成千上万的人参加，包括家人，朋友，科学家，哲学家和政要。<ref name=":120" /><ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" />
By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that [[evolution]] as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in [[Cambridge]] to [[Darwin Day|commemorate his centenary]] and the fiftieth anniversary of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=b222>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=222–225}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F391&pageseq=449 421]}}</ref> Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "[[the eclipse of Darwinism]]", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. [[Ronald Fisher]], an English [[statistics|statistician]], finally united [[Mendelian genetics]] with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''.<ref name=":121">[http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection An introduction to the book by [[A. W. F. Edwards]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924041631/http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full |date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> He gave the theory a [[mathematical]] footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for [[population genetics]] and the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]], with [[J.B.S. Haldane]] and [[Sewall Wright]], which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.<ref name=b3847 />
By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that [[evolution]] as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in [[Cambridge]] to [[Darwin Day|commemorate his centenary]] and the fiftieth anniversary of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=b222>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=222–225}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F391&pageseq=449 421]}}</ref> Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "[[the eclipse of Darwinism]]", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. [[Ronald Fisher]], an English [[statistics|statistician]], finally united [[Mendelian genetics]] with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''.<ref name=":121">[http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection An introduction to the book by [[A. W. F. Edwards]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924041631/http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full |date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> He gave the theory a [[mathematical]] footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for [[population genetics]] and the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]], with [[J.B.S. Haldane]] and [[Sewall Wright]], which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.<ref name=b3847 />
在他去世前，达尔文和他的同事已经说服了大多数科学家，进化作为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 后代渐变Descent with modification</font>'''这一概念是准确无误的。他也因彻底改变了人们固有的生物进化理念被认为是伟大的科学家。1909年6月，尽管当时很少有人同意“自然选择是主要但非排他性的后代渐变手段”这一观点，但达尔文受到了世界各地400多名官员和科学家的赞同，他们甚至在剑桥为他举行仪式来纪念他的百年诞辰和《物种起源》<ref name="b222" />出版五十周年。大约在20世纪初，即所谓的“达尔文主义消亡”时期，科学家们提出了各种能替代自然选择的进化机制，但最终均被证明站不住脚。英国统计学家罗纳德•费舍尔Ronald Fisher在1918年至1930年的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择的遗传学理论The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection </font>'''》<ref name=":121" />，终于将孟德尔遗传学与自然选择结合起来。他为该理论提供了数学基础，并引起广泛的科学共识，即自然选择是进化的基本机制，从而为人类遗传学和现代进化综合奠定了基础。霍尔丹Haldane和塞沃尔•赖特Sewall Wright为现代辩论和对该理论的完善设定了参考框架。<ref name="b3847" />
在他去世前，达尔文和他的同事已经说服了大多数科学家，进化作为''' 后代渐变Descent with modification</font>'''这一概念是准确无误的。他也因彻底改变了人们固有的生物进化理念被认为是伟大的科学家。1909年6月，尽管当时很少有人同意“自然选择是主要但非排他性的后代渐变手段”这一观点，但达尔文受到了世界各地400多名官员和科学家的赞同，他们甚至在剑桥为他举行仪式来纪念他的百年诞辰和《物种起源》<ref name="b222" />出版五十周年。大约在20世纪初，即所谓的“达尔文主义消亡”时期，科学家们提出了各种能替代自然选择的进化机制，但最终均被证明站不住脚。英国统计学家罗纳德•费舍尔Ronald Fisher在1918年至1930年的著作《''' 自然选择的遗传学理论The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection </font>'''》<ref name=":121" />，终于将孟德尔遗传学与自然选择结合起来。他为该理论提供了数学基础，并引起广泛的科学共识，即自然选择是进化的基本机制，从而为人类遗传学和现代进化综合奠定了基础。霍尔丹Haldane和塞沃尔•赖特Sewall Wright为现代辩论和对该理论的完善设定了参考框架。<ref name="b3847" />
Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The [[Linnean Society of London]] has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the [[Darwin–Wallace Medal]] since 1908. [[Darwin Day]] has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=":127">{{Cite news |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |title=The Darwin Show |pages=3–9 |first=Steven |last=Shapin |authorlink=Steven Shapin |date=7 January 2010 |newspaper=[[London Review of Books]] |quote= |accessdate=25 January 2010 |ref=harv |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229113315/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |archivedate=29 December 2009 }}</ref>
Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The [[Linnean Society of London]] has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the [[Darwin–Wallace Medal]] since 1908. [[Darwin Day]] has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=":127">{{Cite news |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |title=The Darwin Show |pages=3–9 |first=Steven |last=Shapin |date=7 January 2010 |newspaper=[[London Review of Books]] |quote= |accessdate=25 January 2010 |ref=harv |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229113315/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |archivedate=29 December 2009 }}</ref>
达尔文的工作持续受到大量出版社和活动的青睐。自1908年以来，伦敦林奈学会就通过颁发达尔文-华莱士奖章来纪念达尔文的成就。达尔文纪念日已成为一年一度的庆祝活动，2009年，在达尔文诞辰200周年和《物种起源》出版150周年之际，人们还举行了全球性庆祝活动。<ref name=":127" />
达尔文的工作持续受到大量出版社和活动的青睐。自1908年以来，伦敦林奈学会就通过颁发达尔文-华莱士奖章来纪念达尔文的成就。达尔文纪念日已成为一年一度的庆祝活动，2009年，在达尔文诞辰200周年和《物种起源》出版150周年之际，人们还举行了全球性庆祝活动。<ref name=":127" />
In 2008–09, the Swedish band [[The Knife]], in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and ''The Origin of Species'', entitled ''[[Tomorrow, in a Year]]''. The show toured European theatres in 2010.
In 2008–09, the Swedish band [[The Knife]], in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and ''The Origin of Species'', entitled ''[[Tomorrow, in a Year]]''. The show toured European theatres in 2010.
在2008-09年，瑞典乐队The Knife，丹麦表演团体Hotel Pro Forma与其他来自丹麦、瑞典和美国的音乐家们合作，创作了一部关于达尔文的生活和《物种起源》的歌剧，叫《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 一年后的明天Tomorrow, in a Year </font>'''》
在2008-09年，瑞典乐队The Knife，丹麦表演团体Hotel Pro Forma与其他来自丹麦、瑞典和美国的音乐家们合作，创作了一部关于达尔文的生活和《物种起源》的歌剧，叫《''' 一年后的明天Tomorrow, in a Year </font>'''》
== 达尔文的孩子 ==
== 达尔文的孩子 ==
The "[[Elizabeth, Lady Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref name=":138">{{harvnb|Moore|2005}}<br />{{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref>
The "[[Elizabeth, Lady Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref name=":138">{{harvnb|Moore|2005}}<br />{{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref>
1915年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 霍普夫人的故事Lady Hope Story </font>'''》中声称达尔文在病床上重回了基督教信仰。该说法后来被达尔文的孩子们否定，并被历史学家认定为虚假信息。<ref name=":138" />
1915年出版的《''' 霍普夫人的故事Lady Hope Story </font>'''》中声称达尔文在病床上重回了基督教信仰。该说法后来被达尔文的孩子们否定，并被历史学家认定为虚假信息。<ref name=":138" />
=== 人类社会 ===
=== 人类社会 ===
Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported [[Reform Act 1832|electoral reform]] and the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation of slaves]]. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave [[John Edmonstone]], whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the ''Beagle'' voyage.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=196–198, 240}} These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century,<ref name=eddy /> but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.<ref name=":139">{{harvnb|Wilkins|2008|pp=408–413}}</ref>{{Ref label|G|VII|none}} Darwins interaction with [[Yaghan people|Yaghan]]s (Fuegians) such as [[Jemmy Button]] during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle]] had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to [[Tierra del Fuego]] he made a colourful description of "[[Fuegian]] savages".<ref name=Rozzi2018/> This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.<ref name=Rozzi2018>{{cite journal |last1=Rozzi |first1=Ricardo|author-link=Ricardo Rozzi |date=2018 |title=Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos: Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental|trans-title=Transformations of Darwin’s thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics |language=Spanish |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 267–277|doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] detailing 32-thousand words.<ref name=Rozzi2018/> He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."<ref name=barta>{{cite journal |first=Tony|last=Barta|title=Mr Darwin's shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide|journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39|issue=2|pages=116–137 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106170 |date=2 June 2005 |s2cid=159807728}}</ref>
Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported [[Reform Act 1832|electoral reform]] and the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation of slaves]]. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave [[John Edmonstone]], whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the ''Beagle'' voyage.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=196–198, 240}} These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century,<ref name=eddy /> but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.<ref name=":139">{{harvnb|Wilkins|2008|pp=408–413}}</ref>{{Ref label|G|VII|none}} Darwins interaction with [[Yaghan people|Yaghan]]s (Fuegians) such as [[Jemmy Button]] during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle]] had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to [[Tierra del Fuego]] he made a colourful description of "[[Fuegian]] savages".<ref name=Rozzi2018/> This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.<ref name=Rozzi2018>{{cite journal |last1=Rozzi |first1=Ricardo|date=2018 |title=Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos: Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental|trans-title=Transformations of Darwin’s thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics |language=Spanish |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 267–277|doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] detailing 32-thousand words.<ref name=Rozzi2018/> He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."
达尔文对社会和政治问题的看法也反映出了他的时代背景和社会地位。他在辉格党改革派家庭中长大，像他的叔叔乔西亚·韦奇伍德一样，他支持选举改革和奴隶的解放。达尔文满腔热情地反对奴隶制，但却认为英国工厂工人或仆人的工作条件并不存在问题。他在1826年从被释放的奴隶约翰·埃德蒙斯通那里学到了如何剥制动物标本，达尔文一直记得他是“一个非常讨人喜欢且聪明的人”，这进一步强化了他的信念，即黑人具有相同的感受，并且可能与其他种族的人一样聪明。他对猎犬号航行中遇到的土著人持同样的态度。这些态度在1820年代的英国并不罕见，但是这却让来访的美国人感到震惊。英国社会在本世纪中叶<ref name="eddy" />开始更加着重强调种族差异，但达尔文仍然坚决反对奴隶制，反对“将所谓的人类种族列为不同的种族”，并反对虐待土著人民<ref name=":139" />。在猎犬号第二次航行中，达尔文与亚格汉的人（火地岛人），例如杰米·巴顿进行互动，这个经历使他对原始民族的看法产生了深远的影响。到达火地岛时，他对“火地岛野蛮人”做了丰富多彩的描述。当他更加详细地了解亚格汉人时，这种看法发生了变化。通过研究亚格汉人，达尔文得出结论，不同人类群体的许多基本情感是相同的，并且心理能力与欧洲人大致相同<ref name="Rozzi2018" />。达尔文虽然对亚格汉文化产生了兴趣，但直到1850年代，他查阅了亚格汉词典，其中详细列出了32,000个单词<ref name="Rozzi2018" />，也正是到了那时，他才对它们深厚的生态知识和复杂的宇宙学感兴趣。<ref name="barta" />
达尔文对社会和政治问题的看法也反映出了他的时代背景和社会地位。他在辉格党改革派家庭中长大，像他的叔叔乔西亚·韦奇伍德一样，他支持选举改革和奴隶的解放。达尔文满腔热情地反对奴隶制，但却认为英国工厂工人或仆人的工作条件并不存在问题。他在1826年从被释放的奴隶约翰·埃德蒙斯通那里学到了如何剥制动物标本，达尔文一直记得他是“一个非常讨人喜欢且聪明的人”，这进一步强化了他的信念，即黑人具有相同的感受，并且可能与其他种族的人一样聪明。他对猎犬号航行中遇到的土著人持同样的态度。这些态度在1820年代的英国并不罕见，但是这却让来访的美国人感到震惊。英国社会在本世纪中叶<ref name="eddy" />开始更加着重强调种族差异，但达尔文仍然坚决反对奴隶制，反对“将所谓的人类种族列为不同的种族”，并反对虐待土著人民<ref name=":139" />。在猎犬号第二次航行中，达尔文与亚格汉的人（火地岛人），例如杰米·巴顿进行互动，这个经历使他对原始民族的看法产生了深远的影响。到达火地岛时，他对“火地岛野蛮人”做了丰富多彩的描述。当他更加详细地了解亚格汉人时，这种看法发生了变化。通过研究亚格汉人，达尔文得出结论，不同人类群体的许多基本情感是相同的，并且心理能力与欧洲人大致相同<ref name="Rozzi2018" />。达尔文虽然对亚格汉文化产生了兴趣，但直到1850年代，他查阅了亚格汉词典，其中详细列出了32,000个单词<ref name="Rozzi2018" />，也正是到了那时，他才对它们深厚的生态知识和复杂的宇宙学感兴趣。<ref name=barta>{{cite journal |first=Tony|last=Barta|title=Mr Darwin's shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide|journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39|issue=2|pages=116–137 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106170 |date=2 June 2005 |s2cid=159807728}}</ref>
他认为男人优于女人是性别选择的结果，Antoinette Brown Blackwell在1875年出版的《大自然中的性别 The Sexes Throughout Nature》一书中对此观点提出了质疑。<ref name=Vandermassen>{{cite journal |author=Vandermassen, Griet |title=Sexual Selection: A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial |journal=European Journal of Women's Studies |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=9 |doi=10.1177/1350506804039812 |pages=11–13 |ref=harv |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.3672 |s2cid=145221350 }}</ref>
达尔文对表兄弟弗朗西斯·高尔顿Francis Galton在1865年提出的论点深感兴趣，弗朗西斯认为，通过遗传的统计分析，可以表明道德和精神上的人类特征可以被继承，并且动物繁殖的原理也可以适用于人类。达尔文在《人类的由来》中指出，帮助弱者生存并使之拥有家庭，可能会失去自然选择带来的好处，但他又警告说，拒绝提供援助将磨灭人类同情的本性，即“我们本性中最崇高的部分”，他认为诸如教育之类的因素可能更为重要。当高尔顿建议发表其研究成果以鼓励“有天赋的人”之间通婚时，达尔文预见了实际的困难，这是“唯一可行的方案，但我担心的是乌托邦式的，改善人类进程的计划会因此产生”。他宁愿简单地宣传继承的重要性，而将决定权留给个人<ref name=":140">{{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|title=Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin|accessdate=8 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102150434/http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|archivedate=2 January 2009}}</ref> </ref>。弗朗西斯·高尔顿在1883年将这一研究领域命名为“优生学”。达尔文去世后，他的理论被引用来促进优生政策的推行。<ref name="barta" />
== 社会进化论运动 ==
== 社会进化论运动 ==
[[文件:VanityFair-Darwin2.jpg|缩略图|右|1871年《名利场》上的达尔文漫画]]
[[文件:VanityFair-Darwin2.jpg|缩略图|右|1871年《名利场》上的达尔文漫画]]
达尔文的名气和声望使他的名字经常与思想及运动联系在一起。这些思想及运动有时与他的著作仅具有间接关系，有时甚至与他的观点直接背道而驰。
达尔文的名气和声望使他的名字经常与思想及运动联系在一起。这些思想及运动有时与他的著作仅具有间接关系，有时甚至与他的观点直接背道而驰。
托马斯·马尔萨斯认为，上帝放任人口增长超过资源供给，是为了使人类更有生产力地工作，并抑制了家庭的组建。这在1830年代被用于证明工作场所和自由放任经济学的合理性。当时，进化论被认为具有社会意义，赫伯特·斯宾塞Herbert Spencer在其1851年的著作《社会静力学 Social Statics》中以拉马克进化论为基础，阐述了人类自由和个人自由的思想。
《物种起源》在1859年出版后不久，批评家们嘲笑达尔文对生存斗争的描述是在为当时英国工业资本主义的马尔萨斯主义辩护。后来达尔文主义一词开始用于进化思想，包括斯宾塞Spencer的“适者生存”思想和自由市场的进步，以及Ernst Haeckel的人类发展多元论。作家利用自然选择来主张各种经常相互矛盾的意识形态，例如放任自由 “狗吃狗”的资本主义，殖民主义和帝国主义。然而，达尔文的整体自然观包括了“一个人对另一个人的依赖”。因此，和平主义者，社会主义者，自由社会改革者和无政府主义者（例如Peter Kropotkin）都强调了合作对于物种内部斗争的价值。达尔文本人坚称，社会政策不应仅仅以斗争和自然选择的观念为指导。
1880年代后期，优生运动发展了生物遗传学的思想，并吸收了达尔文主义的某些观念从而为他们的思想提供了科学依据。在英国，大多数人赞同达尔文对自愿改善的谨慎态度，并试图鼓励那些具有“积极优生”思想特征的人。在“达尔文主义的消亡”期间，孟德尔遗传学为优生学提供了科学基础。在美国，加拿大和澳大利亚，反向优生学开始除去“笨拙”的一代，并使之成为生育思想的主流。美国的优生拥护者甚至颁布了强制性绝育法，随后该法案又被其他几个国家引入。不过后来，纳粹优生学使该领域声名狼藉。
1880年代后期，优生运动发展了生物遗传学的思想，并吸收了达尔文主义的某些观念从而为他们的思想提供了科学依据。在英国，大多数人赞同达尔文对自愿改善的谨慎态度，并试图鼓励那些具有“积极优生”思想特征的人。在“达尔文主义的消亡”期间，孟德尔遗传学为优生学提供了科学基础。在美国，加拿大和澳大利亚，反向优生学开始除去“笨拙”的一代，并使之成为生育思想的主流。美国的优生拥护者甚至颁布了强制性绝育法，随后该法案又被其他几个国家引入。不过后来，纳粹优生学使该领域声名狼藉。
“社会达尔文主义”一词在1890年代左右很少使用，但在1940年代作为贬义词而流行，由理查德·霍夫施塔特Richard Hofstadter用来抨击自由放任的保守主义派，像是威廉·格雷厄姆·萨姆纳William Graham Sumner一样反对改革和社会主义的人。从那时起，它就被那些认为进化论会导致严重的道德后果的反对者滥用。
== 著作 ==
== 著作 ==
达尔文是一位著作等身的学者。即使在还没有发表有关进化的论文时，他还是《猎犬号 The Voyage of the Beagle》的作者、在南美洲发表并解决了珊瑚环礁形成难题的地质学家以及发表了有关藤壶权威著作的生物学家。虽然《物种起源 the Origin of Species》在他作品集中占了主导地位，但《人的由来 The Descent of Man》和《人类与动物的情感表达 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals》同样产生了巨大的影响。另外他关于植物的著作有《植物运动的力量 The Power of Movement in Plants》以及他的遗作《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用 》，都是业界举足轻重的创新研究成果。<ref>{{cite book|last = Brummitt|first = R. K.|author2=C. E. Powell|title = Authors of Plant Names |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |year = 1992 |isbn = 978-1-84246-085-6}}</ref>
== 另请参见 ==
== 另见 ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[创造论与进化论之争Creation–evolution controversy]]
* [[创造论与进化论之争 Creation–evolution controversy]]
* [[欧洲和美洲的科学探险航行European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]
* [[欧洲和美洲的科学探险航行 European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]
* [[生物学史History of biology]]
* [[生物学史 History of biology]]
* [[进化思想史History of evolutionary thought]]
* [[进化思想史 History of evolutionary thought]]
* [[造物弄人 (2009) Creation]]
* [[造物弄人 (2009) Creation]]
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}
== 笔记==
== 笔记==
* 达尔文是一位自然学家、地质学家、生物学家和作家。他曾担任过医生的助理和两年的医学生，也接受过成为牧师的教育；同时他还接受过动物标本制作方面的培训。<ref name=ODNB>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref>
* 达尔文是一位自然学家、地质学家、生物学家和作家。他曾担任过医生的助理和两年的医学生，也接受过成为牧师的教育；同时他还接受过动物标本制作方面的培训。
* 罗伯特·菲茨罗伊在航行之后因圣经直译主义而闻名，但此时他对莱尔的思想颇有兴趣，后来他们在莱尔要求南美航行考察前相遇。菲茨罗伊在巴塔哥尼亚Patagonia圣克鲁斯河River Santa Cruz登高期间用日记的形式记录了他的观点，即平原其实是海滩高地。但在他返航后，他与一位虔诚的教徒女士结婚，随后便放弃了这些想法。（Browne 1995，第186、414页）
* 罗伯特·菲茨罗伊在航行之后因圣经直译主义而闻名，但此时他对莱尔的思想颇有兴趣，后来他们在莱尔要求南美航行考察前相遇。菲茨罗伊在巴塔哥尼亚Patagonia圣克鲁斯河River Santa Cruz登高期间用日记的形式记录了他的观点，即平原其实是海滩高地。但在他返航后，他与一位虔诚的教徒女士结婚，随后便放弃了这些想法。（Browne 1995，第186、414页）
* 在《物种起源》第十三章的“形态学”部分中，达尔文评论了人类与其他哺乳动物之间的同源异体骨模式，并写道：“人类用来抓东西的手，鼹鼠用来挖掘的爪子，马匹用来跑步的腿，海豚用来游泳的鳍，以及蝙蝠用来飞的翅膀，他们是否都是按照相同的模式构造而成，其实是相同的骨骼长在相同的位置？想来没有什么能比这种猜测更有趣了”。在最后一章中，达尔文还提到“男人的手，蝙蝠的翅膀，海豚的鳍和马的腿，这些骨头构造都是相同的<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> ……这显然解释了血统论，或者说是共同祖先学说。这些骨头在缓慢且连续地修正变化以适应它们的新功能。”<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=497&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 479]}}</ref>
* 在《物种起源》第十三章的“形态学”部分中，达尔文评论了人类与其他哺乳动物之间的同源异体骨模式，并写道：“人类用来抓东西的手，鼹鼠用来挖掘的爪子，马匹用来跑步的腿，海豚用来游泳的鳍，以及蝙蝠用来飞的翅膀，他们是否都是按照相同的模式构造而成，其实是相同的骨骼长在相同的位置？想来没有什么能比这种猜测更有趣了”。在最后一章中，达尔文还提到“男人的手，蝙蝠的翅膀，海豚的鳍和马的腿，这些骨头构造都是相同的<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> ……这显然解释了血统论，或者说是共同祖先学说。这些骨头在缓慢且连续地修正变化以适应它们的新功能。”
* 达尔文在《物种起源》中的结论中还提到了人类起源，“在遥远的将来，我看到了更为重要的研究领域，它拥有广阔的前景。心理学研究将通过获取需求不同程度的智力和能力，以分阶级为基础来深入发展。人类的起源和历史终将被照亮。”<ref name="light on man" />
* 达尔文在《物种起源》中的结论中还提到了人类起源，“在遥远的将来，我看到了更为重要的研究领域，它拥有广阔的前景。心理学研究将通过获取需求不同程度的智力和能力，以分阶级为基础来深入发展。人类的起源和历史终将被照亮。”<ref name="light on man" />
* 在1871年出版的《人类的由来》中，达尔文在第一段讨论道：
* 在1871年出版的《人类的由来》中，达尔文在第一段讨论道：
“多年来，我收集了很多关于人类的起源或由来的笔记，我无意对此主题进行发布，更确切地说是我决定不发表，因为我认为这仅是个人观点，是我应由此对自己的观点产生质疑，而非大众。在我《物种起源》首版中，足以表明通过这项工作，‘将对人类的起源及其历史产生新的领悟。’这意味着，在尊重人类在地球上所有的表现行为前提下，我们必须将其与任何有机物统一在一起。”在1874年第二版的序言中，达尔文增加了对第二点的阐述：“一些批评家说过，当我发现无法通过自然选择来解释人的许多结构细节时，我发明了性选择。但是，我在第一版的《物种起源》中就对这一原则给出了可以相当清晰的草图，我在那里就指出过它也适用于人类。”
* 例如，可参见夏洛特·珀金斯·吉尔曼Charlotte Perkins Gilman的WILLA第4卷，和黛博拉·德·西蒙妮Deborah M. De Simone的《教育女性化Feminization of Education》：“在由达尔文的《物种起源》引起的“智力混乱”时期，吉尔曼与一代成熟的思想家均分享了许多基本的教育思想。在相信个人可以指导人类和社会发展的信念的前提下，许多进步主义者开始将教育视为促进社会发展和解决诸如城市化、贫困或移民等问题的灵丹妙药。”
* 例如，可参见夏洛特·珀金斯·吉尔曼Charlotte Perkins Gilman的WILLA第4卷，和黛博拉·德·西蒙妮Deborah M. De Simone的《教育女性化Feminization of Education》：“在由达尔文的《物种起源》引起的“智力混乱”时期，吉尔曼与一代成熟的思想家均分享了许多基本的教育思想。在相信个人可以指导人类和社会发展的信念的前提下，许多进步主义者开始将教育视为促进社会发展和解决诸如城市化、贫困或移民等问题的灵丹妙药。”
| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | issue =April 2000| volume = 154| pages = 1419–1426| pmc = 1461012| pmid = 10747041| ref = | periodical = Genetics| accessdate =11 November 2008}}{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |accessdate=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df= }}))
| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | issue =April 2000| volume = 154| pages = 1419–1426| pmc = 1461012| pmid = 10747041| ref = | periodical = Genetics| accessdate =11 November 2008}}{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |accessdate=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df= }}))
* 大卫·夸曼David Quammen认为，“在达尔文出版了多本经过实证研究的，谨慎的进化论书后，他转向了这些神秘的植物学研究。但这却是‘极其令人生厌’的，不过至少在某种程度上，让那些为争夺猿猴，天使和灵魂而战的吵闹争论者不再继续打扰他。” David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
* David Quammen认为，“在达尔文出版了多本经过实证研究的，谨慎的进化论书后，他转向了这些神秘的植物学研究。但这却是‘极其令人生厌’的，不过至少在某种程度上，让那些为争夺猿猴，天使和灵魂而战的吵闹争论者不再继续打扰他。”
== 引用 ==
== 引用 ==
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* {{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|authorlink=Edward Larson|title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|publisher=Modern Library|year=2004|isbn=978-0-679-64288-6|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars}}
* {{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|publisher=Modern Library|year=2004|isbn=978-0-679-64288-6|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars}}
* {{cite web
* {{cite web
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{{refend}}
{{refend}}
== 编者推荐 ==
== 编者推荐 ==
达尔文进化论2.0：人类能靠生态链操控大自然？|生物_新浪财经_新浪网 (sina.com.cn)http://finance.sina.com.cn/jjxw/2021-05-13/doc-ikmxzfmm2192284.shtml
达尔文进化论2.0：人类能靠生态链操控大自然？|生物_新浪财经_新浪网 (sina.com.cn)http://finance.sina.com.cn/jjxw/2021-05-13/doc-ikmxzfmm2192284.shtml
[[Category:人类进化]]
[[Category:英国昆虫学家]]
[[Category:英国地质学家]]
[[Category:英国博物学家]]
[[Category:英语怀疑论者]]
[[Category:英国旅行作家]]
[[Category:动物行为学家]]
[[Category:进化生物学家]]
[[Category:人类进化理论家]]
[[Category:独立科学家]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:People educated at Shrewsbury School]]
[[Category:People from Shrewsbury]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]
[[Category:Royal Medal winners]]
[[Category:Utilitarians]]
[[Category:Wollaston Medal winners]]