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第9行： − 气候系统可能会由于内部的变化和外部的强迫而发生变化。这些外部强迫可能是自然现象，比如太阳强度的变化和火山爆发，也可能是由人类引起的。吸热性温室气体的积累正在导致全球变暖，主要是由人类燃烧的化石燃料排放。人类的活动也会释放起冷却作用的气溶胶，但是它们的净效应远小于温室气体。<ref name='Planton2013'>Planton, S. (2013). "Annex III: Glossary" (PDF). In Stocker, T.F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; Allen, S.K.; Boschung, J.; Nauels, A.; Xia, Y.; Bex, V.; Midgley, P.M. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref>不同气候系统组成部分的反馈过程可以放大这些变化。+ − − + − + − + − + − 最后，生物圈也与气候系统的其他部分相互作用。植被通常比下面的土壤更暗或更浅，所以太阳的热量或多或少会被植被覆盖的地区吸收。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'/>植被善于捕获水分，然后水被植被的根吸收。如果没有植被，这些水就会流向最近的河流或其他水体。最后，生物圈也与气候系统的其他部分相互作用。植被通常比下面的土壤更暗或更浅，所以太阳的热量或多或少会被植被覆盖的地区吸收。植被善于捕获水分，然后水被植被的根吸收。如果没有植被，这些水就会流向最近的河流或其他水体。被植物吸收的水会蒸发，从而促进水循环。降水和温度影响着不同植被带的分布。<ref name='Goosse2015'/>小型浮游植物的生长从海水中吸收的碳几乎和大气中的陆地植物一样多。<ref name='smil2003'>Smil, Vaclav (2003). The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262692984.</ref>虽然从技术上讲，人类是生物圈的一部分，但由于人类对地球的巨大影响，它们通常被视为地球气候系统的独立组成部分，即人类圈。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'/>+ − + − + − === 能量和一般循环 === + − The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as [[black-body radiation]]. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines [[Earth's energy budget]]. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|pp=15–23}}+ − The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as black-body radiation. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling. − = = = 能量和大气环流 = = = 气候系统从太阳获得能量，从地核获得的能量要少得多，从月球获得的潮汐能也是如此。地球以两种形式向外层空间释放能量: 它直接反射一部分太阳辐射，释放出红外线辐射，称为黑体辐射。输入和输出能量的平衡，以及能量通过气候系统的过程，决定了地球的能量收支。当输入的总能量大于输出的能量时，地球的能量收支是正的，气候系统正在变暖。如果更多的能量被释放出去，那么能量预算就是负的，地球就会经历冷却。+ − [终译]气候系统接收来自太阳的能量，从地核获得的能量要少得多，从月球获得的潮汐能也是如此。地球以两种形式向外层空间释放能量：它直接反射一部分太阳辐射能，并发出红外线辐射，称为黑体辐射。输入和输出能源的平衡，以及能量通过气候系统的过程，决定了地球的能量收支。当输入的总能量大于输出能量时，地球的能量收支为正，气候系统会变暖。如果更多的能源消耗出去，能量收支是负的，地球会变冷。 − More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the [[atmospheric circulation|atmosphere]] and [[ocean circulation|oceans]].{{sfn|Bridgman|Oliver|2014|p=131}} Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=95}} Due to the conservation of [[angular momentum]], the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|pp=95-97}} [[Monsoons]], seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean. The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind.{{sfn|Gruza|2009|pp=124-125}}+ − More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the atmosphere and oceans. Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator. Due to the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells. Monsoons, seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean. The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind. − 到达热带地区的能量比到达极地地区的能量多，随之而来的温差推动了大气和海洋的全球循环。空气变暖时上升，变冷时向极地流动，变冷后又下沉，回到赤道。由于角动量守恒定律的存在，地球的自转使得北半球的空气偏向右边，南半球的空气偏向左边，从而形成了不同的大气单元。季风，主要发生在热带地区的风和降水的季节性变化，是由于陆块比海洋更容易升温而形成的。温度差引起陆地和海洋之间的压力差，驱动稳定的风。+ + − [终译]到达热带地区的能量比到达极地地区的能量多，温差驱动了大气和海洋的全球环流。变暖时空气上升，向极地流动，冷却时再次下沉，返回赤道。由于角动量守恒，地球的自转使空气在北半球向右转移，在南半球向左转移，从而形成了不同的大气单元。季风，风和降水的季节性变化主要发生在热带地区，因为陆地比海洋更容易升温。温差引起陆地和海洋之间的压差，驱动稳定的风。 − Ocean water that has more salt has a higher [[density]] and differences in density play an important role in [[ocean circulation]]. The [[thermohaline circulation]] transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions.{{sfn|Goosse|2015|p=18}} Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the [[Melting point|freezing point temperature]].{{sfn|Goosse|2015|p=12}} Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called [[upwelling]], which cools down the air above.{{sfn|Goosse|2015|p=13}}+ + − Ocean water that has more salt has a higher density and differences in density play an important role in ocean circulation. The thermohaline circulation transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the freezing point temperature. Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called upwelling, which cools down the air above.+ − 含盐量较高的海水具有较高的密度，密度差异在海洋环流中起着重要作用。温盐环流从热带向极地地区输送热量。海洋环流进一步受到风的相互作用的驱动。盐的组成也影响凝固点的温度。垂直运动可以把较冷的水带到表面，这个过程称为上升流，使上面的空气冷却下来。 − [终译]含盐量较高的海水具有较高的密度，密度差异在海洋环流中起着重要作用。热盐环流将热量从热带地区输送到极地地区。海洋环流进一步被风的相互作用驱动。盐的组分也会影响冰点的温度。垂直运动可以将更冷的水带到表面，这一过程称为上升流，使上面的空气冷却。+ − === Hydrological cycle === − [终译]水循环 − The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/how-weather-works/water-cycle|title=The water cycle|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref> Plants [[evapotranspiration|evapotranspirate]] and sunlight [[evaporation|evaporates]] water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind [[salt]] and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface.{{sfn|Brengtsson|Bonnet|Calisto|Destouni|2014|p=6}} Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall.{{sfn|Peixoto|1993|p=5}} The evaporation of water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This ''[[latent heat]]'' is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere.{{sfn|Goosse|2015|loc=section 2.2.1}}+ + − The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere. Plants evapotranspirate and sunlight evaporates water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind salt and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall. The evaporation of water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This latent heat is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere. − + + − [终译]水循环描述了它是如何不断地在地球表面和大气层之间移动的。植物蒸腾，阳光蒸发海洋和其他水体中的水分，留下盐和其他矿物质。蒸发的淡水后来又降回到地表。降水和蒸发量在全球范围内的分布并不均匀，一些地区，如热带地区的降雨量大于蒸发量，而其他地区的蒸发量多于降雨。水的蒸发需要大量的能量，而在凝结过程中会释放出大量的热量。这种潜伏的热量是大气中能量的主要来源。+ − === Biochemical cycles === − [终译]生物化学循环[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|thumb|330x330px|Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.|链接=Special:FilePath/Carbon_cycle.jpg]] − Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The [[carbon cycle]] is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: {{CO2}} and [[methane]].{{sfn|Goosse|2015|loc=section 2.3.1}} In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using [[photosynthesis]]; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures.{{sfn|Möller|2010|pp=123–125}} As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release {{CO2}} by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle.{{sfn|Aiuppa|Federico|Giudice|Gurrieri|2006}} As {{CO2}} in the atmosphere makes rain a bit [[acidic]], this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as ''[[weathering]]''. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form [[sedimentary rock]]s, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riebeek |first1=Holli |title=The Carbon Cycle |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/CarbonCycle |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=16 June 2011 }}</ref> − alt=|thumb|330x330px|Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.+ − Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The carbon cycle is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: and methane. In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using photosynthesis; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle. As in the atmosphere makes rain a bit acidic, this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as weathering. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form sedimentary rocks, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere. − 生物化学循环 = = alt = | thumb | 330x330px | 碳不断地在气候系统的不同元素之间传输: 由生物固定，并通过海洋和大气传输。对生命至关重要的化学元素在气候系统的不同组成部分中不断循环。碳循环对气候直接重要，因为它决定了大气中两种重要的温室气体的浓度: 甲烷。在碳循环的快速阶段，植物通过光合作用从大气中吸收二氧化碳，这些二氧化碳随后通过生物的呼吸重新释放出来。作为缓慢碳循环的一部分，火山通过脱气释放，从地壳和地幔中释放出二氧化碳。由于大气中的降雨使得雨水呈酸性，这种降雨可以慢慢地溶解一些岩石，这个过程被称为风化。通过这种方式释放出来的矿物质，被运输到海里，被生物使用，这些生物的遗骸可以形成沉积岩，把碳带回岩石圈。 − [终译]对生命至关重要的化学元素不断地通过气候系统的不同组成部分进行循环。碳循环对气候直接重要，因为它决定了大气中两种重要温室气体的浓度：二氧化碳和甲烷。在碳循环的快速阶段，植物通过光合作用从大气中吸收二氧化碳；这些二氧化碳随后通过生物的呼吸重新释放出来。作为缓慢碳循环的一部分，火山通过脱气释放二氧化碳，从地壳和地幔中释放二氧化碳。由于大气中的二氧化碳使雨水有点酸性，这种雨可以慢慢溶解一些岩石，这个过程被称为风化。以这种方式释放出来的矿物质，被运送到海洋中，被生物利用，它们的遗骸可以形成沉积岩，将碳带回岩石圈。+ − The [[nitrogen cycle]] describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric [[nitrogen]] is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called [[Nitrogen fixation|''fixing nitrogen'']], before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere.{{sfn|Möller|2010|pp=128–129}} Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of [[fertilizer]]s has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.{{sfn|Möller|2010|pp=129, 197}} − The nitrogen cycle describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric nitrogen is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called fixing nitrogen, before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere. Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of fertilizers has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.+ + − 氮循环描述了活性氮的流动。由于大气中的氮是惰性的，微生物首先必须通过一种称为固氮的过程将其转化为活性氮化合物，然后才能将其用作生物圈的组成部分。人类活动在碳和氮循环中发挥着重要作用: 化石燃料的燃烧将碳从岩石圈转移到大气中，而肥料的使用极大地增加了可用的固定氮的数量。 − [终译]氮循环描述了活性氮的流动。由于大气中的氮是惰性的，微生物首先必须将其转化为活性氮化合物，这个过程被称为固氮，然后才能被用作生物圈的组成部分。人类活动在碳循环和氮循环中都发挥着重要作用：化石燃料的燃烧已经将碳从岩石圈转移到大气中，而化肥的使用也大大地增加了可用的固定氮的数量。+ − + − {{Main|Climate change}}+ − [终译]气候系统内的变化 − Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth.{{sfn|National Research Council|2001|p=8}} Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called ''internal climate variability''. The system can also experience ''external forcing'' from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit).{{sfn|Nath|Luo|Chen|Cui|2018}} Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as ''climate changes'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/science-climate-change/1-what-is-climate-change|title=1. What is climate change?|series=The science of climate change - Questions and Answers|author= Australian Academy of Science|website=www.science.org.au|year=2015|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> although this phrase usually refers to the current [[Global warming|global climate change]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/climate-change/|title=Climate Change|author=National Geographic|date=2019-03-28|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of [[climate feedbacks]] (e.g. [[Ice–albedo feedback|albedo changes]]), producing many different effects (e.g. [[sea level rise]]).{{sfn|Mauritsen|Graversen|Klocke|Langen|2013}} + − Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth. Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called internal climate variability. The system can also experience external forcing from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit). Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as climate changes, although this phrase usually refers to the current global climate change. When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of climate feedbacks (e.g. albedo changes), producing many different effects (e.g. sea level rise).+ + − + + − + − === Internal variability === − [终译]内部变化性[[File:El-nino.png|left|thumb|330x330px|Difference between normal December [[sea surface temperature]] [°C] and temperatures during the strong El Niño of 1997. El Niño typically brings wetter weather to Mexico and the United States.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Mike |last1=Carlowicz |first2=Stephanie Schollaert |last2=Uz |title=El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ElNino |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=14 February 2017 }}</ref>[终译]12月正常海面温度与1997年强烈厄尔尼诺现象期间温度的差异。厄尔尼诺现象通常会给墨西哥和美国带来更潮湿的天气。|链接=Special:FilePath/El-nino.png]] − Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]] (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese [[Azores]] typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over [[Iceland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/north-atlantic-oscillation|title=North Atlantic Oscillation|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-03}}</ref> The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central [[Eurasia]].{{sfn|Chiodo|Oehrlein|Polvani|Fyfe|2019}} For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO.{{sfn|Olsen|Anderson|Knudsen|2012}} Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.{{sfn|Delworth|Zeng|Vecchi|Yang|2016}} + − Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese Azores typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over Iceland. The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central Eurasia. For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO. Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades. − + + − [终译]即使没有外部推动（外部强迫），气候系统的组成部分不断变化。其中的一个例子是，在大气层中北大西洋振荡(NAO)，它作为大气压力跷跷板。葡萄牙亚速尔群岛的压力通常都很高，而冰岛上空的压力通常都较低。压力的差异会产生振荡，这将影响北大西洋地区到欧亚大陆中部的天气模式。例如，格陵兰岛和加拿大的天气在NA性期间是寒冷和干燥的。北大西洋振荡的不同阶段可以持续数十年。 − The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time.{{sfn|Brown|Li|Cordero|Mauget|2015}}{{sfn|Hasselmann|1976}} Examples of this type of variability include the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], the [[Pacific decadal oscillation]], and the [[Atlantic multidecadal oscillation|Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation]]. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere;{{sfn|Meehl|Hu|Arblaster|Fasullo|2013}}{{sfn|England|McGregor|Spence|Meehl|2014}} but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.{{sfn|Brown|Li|Li|Ming|2014}}{{sfn|Palmer|McNeall|2014}}+ + − The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere; but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth. − 海洋和大气层也可以共同作用，自发地产生内部气候变化，这种变化可以持续数年甚至数十年。这种变化的例子包括厄尔尼诺-南方涛动、太平洋十年涛动和大西洋数十年涛动。这些变化可以通过在深海和大气之间重新分配热量来影响全球平均表面温度，但也可以通过改变云、水蒸气或海冰的分布来影响地球的总能量收支。+ − [终译]海洋和大气也可以共同作用，自发地产生内部的气候变化，一次可以持续数年到几十年。这种类型变化的例子包括厄尔尼诺-南方振荡、太平洋年代际振荡和大西洋数十年振荡。这些变化不仅可以通过在深海和大气之间重新分配热量来影响全球平均地表温度；而且也可以通过改变云、水蒸气或海冰的分布来影响地球的总能量收支。 − The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]], and therefore very high [[Volumetric heat capacity|thermal inertia.]] For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to [[Attribution of recent climate change|attribute recent climate change]] to greenhouse gases.{{sfn|Wallace|Deser|Smoliak|Phillips|2013}}+ − + − The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the atmosphere, and therefore very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to attribute recent climate change to greenhouse gases. − − 由于海洋的质量是大气的数百倍，因此具有很高的热惯性，这些振荡的海洋方面可以产生百年时间尺度的变化。例如，像温盐环流这样的海洋过程的改变在重新分配世界海洋的热量方面起着关键作用。了解内部变化有助于科学家将近期的气候变化归因于温室气体。 − − [终译]由于海洋的质量比大气多数百倍，这些振荡在海洋方面可以在百年时间尺度上产生变化，因此具有非常高的热惯性。例如，热盐环流等海洋过程的改变在世界海洋中重新分配热量中起着关键作用。了解内部变化有助于科学家将最近的气候变化归因于温室气体。 − − === External climate forcing === − [终译]外部气候强迫 − − On long timescales, the climate is determined mostly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing, and when the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the climate system, it is called an ''external forcing''.{{sfn|Gettelman|Rood|2016|p=23}} Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. Off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components, as are human actions.{{sfn|Planton|2013|p=1454|ps=: "External forcing refers to a forcing agent outside the climate system causing a change in the climate system. Volcanic eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere and land use change are external forcings. Orbital forcing is also an external forcing as the insolation changes with orbital parameters eccentricity, tilt and precession of the equinox."}} − − On long timescales, the climate is determined mostly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing, and when the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the climate system, it is called an external forcing. Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. Off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components, as are human actions. − − 在很长的时间尺度上，气候主要取决于系统中有多少能量以及能量流向何处。当地球的能量收支发生变化时，气候也随之改变。能量收支的变化被称为强迫力，当这种变化是由气候系统的五个组成部分之外的某种东西引起时，这种变化被称为外部强迫力。例如，火山是由于地球内部的深层过程，而这些过程并不被认为是气候系统的一部分。行星以外的变化，如太阳变化和小行星的到来，也是“外部”的气候系统的五个组成部分，因为是人类的行动。 − − [终译]在长时间尺度上，气候主要取决于系统中有多少能量和能量的去向。当地球的能量收支发生变化时，气候会随之而来。能量收支的变化被称为强迫，当变化是由气候系统的五个组成部分之外的某种东西引起时，这种变化被称为外部强迫。例如，火山是由于地球内部的深层过程，而这些过程并不被认为是气候系统的一部分。行星外的变化，如太阳的变化和到来的小行星，也是气候系统五个组成部分的“外部”，人类的行动也是如此。 − − The main value to quantify and compare climate forcings is [[radiative forcing]]. − − The main value to quantify and compare climate forcings is radiative forcing. − − 量化和比较气候影响的主要数据是辐射效应。 − − [终译]量化和比较气候强迫的主要价值是辐射强迫 − − ==== Incoming sunlight ==== − [终译]入射阳光 − − The [[Sun]] is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation.{{sfn|Roy|2018|p=xvii}} The amount of energy coming from the Sun [[solar variation|varies]] on shorter time scales, including the 11-year [[solar cycle]]{{sfn|Willson|Hudson|1991}} and longer-term time scales.{{sfn|Turner|Swindles|Charman|Langdon|2016}} While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the [[stratosphere]], which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface.{{sfn|Roy|2018|pp=xvii–xviii}} − − The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation. The amount of energy coming from the Sun varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term time scales. While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the stratosphere, which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface. − − 太阳是地球能量输入的主要来源，并驱动大气环流。来自太阳的能量在较短的时间尺度上变化，包括11年的太阳周期和较长的时间尺度。虽然太阳活动周期太小，不足以直接使地球表面变暖和变冷，但它确实直接影响到大气层的较高层---- 平流层，这可能对地球表面附近的大气层产生影响。 − − [终译]太阳是地球主要的输入能量来源，驱动大气环流。来自太阳的能量在较短的时间尺度上发生变化，包括11年的太阳周期和较长的时间尺度。虽然太阳周期太小，不能直接使地球表面变暖和变冷，但它确实直接影响大气层的更高层，即平流层，这可能会对地表附近的大气产生影响。 − − Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of [[Kinematics|kinematic]] change are variations in Earth's [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]], changes in [[axial tilt|the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation]], and [[precession]] of Earth's axis. Together these produce [[Milankovitch cycles]], which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to [[glacial period|glacial]] and [[interglacial period]]s.<ref name="msu milankovitch">{{cite web |url=http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/time1/milankov.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716144130/http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/time1/milankov.htm|archive-date=2011-07-16|title= Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation|access-date=2 April 2009 |publisher= University of Montana}}</ref> − − Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of kinematic change are variations in Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession of Earth's axis. Together these produce Milankovitch cycles, which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods. − − 地球运动的细微变化可能会导致到达地球表面的阳光的季节分布以及它在全球的分布情况发生巨大变化，尽管不会影响到全球和年平均阳光。这三种类型的运动学变化是地球偏心率的变化、地球自转轴倾斜角的变化和地球轴进动。这些因素共同产生了米兰科维奇循环，影响了气候，并且与冰川期和间冰期有着显著的相关性。 − − [终译]地球运动的微小变化会导致到达地球表面的阳光的季节性分布以及全球分布的巨大变化，尽管不会影响到全球和年平均阳光。这三种类型的运动学变化分别是地球偏心率的变化、地球自转轴倾斜角度的变化和地球旋转轴的运动。这些因素共同产生了米兰科维奇旋回，它们影响着气候，并且与冰川期和间冰期有着显著的相关性。 − − ==== Greenhouse gases ==== − [终译]温室气体 − − Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing [[longwave]] radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently, [[anthropogenic climate change|emissions by humans]] are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as {{CO2}}, [[methane]] and [[Nitrous oxide|{{N2O}}]].{{sfn|McMichael|Woodruff|Hales|2006}} The dominant contributor to the [[greenhouse effect]] is water vapour (~50%), with [[cloud]]s (~25%) and [[Carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]] (~20%) also playing an important role. When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as {{CO2}} are increased and temperature rises, the amount of water vapour increases as well, so that water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings, but instead as feedbacks.{{sfn|Schmidt|Ruedy|Miller|Lacis|2010}} Rock [[weathering]] is a very slow process that removes carbon from the atmosphere.{{sfn|Liu|Dreybrodt|Liu|2011}} − − Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing longwave radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently, emissions by humans are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as , methane and . The dominant contributor to the greenhouse effect is water vapour (~50%), with clouds (~25%) and (~20%) also playing an important role. When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as are increased and temperature rises, the amount of water vapour increases as well, so that water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings, but instead as feedbacks. Rock weathering is a very slow process that removes carbon from the atmosphere. − − = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =.在地球的过去，许多过程导致了温室气体浓度的变化。目前，人类的排放是某些温室气体浓度增加的原因，例如甲烷和甲烷。温室效应的主要贡献者是水蒸气(约50%) ，云(约25%)和(约20%)也起着重要作用。当长期存在的温室气体(如温度升高)的浓度增加时，水蒸气的数量也会增加，因此水蒸气和云层不被视为外部影响，而是作为反馈。岩石风化是一个非常缓慢的过程，从大气中移除碳。 − − [终译]温室气体通过吸收长波辐射，将热量捕获在大气层的下部。在地球的过去，许多过程导致了温室气体浓度的变化。目前，人类的排放是导致一些温室气体浓度增加的原因，如二氧化碳、甲烷和一氧化二氮。造成温室效应的主要因素是水蒸气（~50%），其中云（~25%）和二氧化碳（~20%）也发挥了重要作用。当二氧化碳等长期存在的温室气体浓度升高，温度上升时，水蒸气的数量也会增加，因此水蒸气和云不会被视为外部强迫，而是反馈。岩石风化是一个从大气中去除碳的非常缓慢的过程。 − − ==== Aerosols ==== − [终译]气溶胶 − − Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named ''aerosols'', have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere.{{sfn|Myhre|Lund Myhre|Samset|Storelvmo|2013}} Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]], stimulating cloud formation.{{sfn|Lohmann|Feichter|2005}} Natural sources of aerosols include [[sea spray]], [[mineral dust]], [[meteorites]] and [[volcanoes]], but humans also contribute{{sfn|Myhre|Lund Myhre|Samset|Storelvmo|2013}} as human activity such as causing [[wildfires]] or combustion of fossil fuels releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract a part of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases, but only until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less.{{sfn|Samset|2018}} − − Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named aerosols, have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere. Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei, stimulating cloud formation. Natural sources of aerosols include sea spray, mineral dust, meteorites and volcanoes, but humans also contribute as human activity such as causing wildfires or combustion of fossil fuels releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract a part of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases, but only until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less. − − 大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接影响包括气溶胶可以充当云凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的自然来源包括海浪、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消温室气体排放造成的一部分变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短时间内回落到地面。 − − [终译]大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要是散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则是吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接效应包括气溶胶可以作为云的凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的天然来源包括浪花、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消部分温室气体排放的变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短的时间内落到表面。 − − [[File:Msu 1978-2010.jpg|thumb|right|In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by [[Microwave sounding unit|MSU]] [[NASA]] satellites, effects appear from [[aerosols]] released by major volcanic eruptions ([[El Chichón]] and [[Mount Pinatubo|Pinatubo]]). [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] is a separate event, from ocean variability. − − [终译]从1979年到2010年的大气温度，由美国宇航局卫星确定，主要火山爆发（埃尔奇肯和皮纳图博）释放的气溶胶。厄尔尼诺现象是海洋变化的个别事件。|链接=Special:FilePath/Msu_1978-2010.jpg]] − Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent.{{sfn|Man|Zhou|Jungclaus|2014}} On average, there are only several [[volcanic eruptions]] per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting [[ton]]s of [[sulfur dioxide|SO<sub>2</sub>]] into the [[stratosphere]].{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}}{{sfn|Graf|Feichter|Langmann|1997}} The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}} − Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent. On average, there are only several volcanic eruptions per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting tons of SO<sub>2</sub> into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly. − − 虽然从技术上讲，火山是岩石圈的一部分，岩石圈本身也是气候系统的一部分，但火山作用被定义为外部强迫因素。平均而言，每个世纪只有几次火山爆发，通过向平流层喷发大量的二氧化硫，影响地球气候超过一年。二氧化硫通过化学方法转化为气溶胶，阻挡一部分阳光照射到地球表面，从而导致气候变冷。小规模的火山喷发对大气层的影响很微妙。 − − [终译]虽然火山在技术上讲是岩石圈的一部分，岩石圈本身是气候系统的一部分，但火山活动被定义为一种外部强迫。平均而言，每世纪只有几次火山喷发，通过向平流层喷出数吨的二氧化硫来影响地球的气候超过一年。二氧化硫通过化学方式转化为气溶胶，通过阻挡地球表面的一部分阳光来导致降温。小的喷发对大气的影响很微妙。 − − ==== Land use and cover change ==== − [终译]土地使用和覆盖物变更 − − Changes in land cover, such as change of water cover (e.g. [[rising sea level]], [[List of drying lakes|drying up of lakes]] and [[outburst flood]]s) or [[deforestation]], particularly through human use of the land, can affect the climate. The [[albedo|reflectivity]] of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so that precipitation is also affected.{{sfn|Jones|Collins|Torn|2013}} Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release [[black carbon]], which darkens snow making it easier to melt.{{sfn|Tosca|Randerson|Zender|2013}}{{sfn|Kerr|2013}} − − Changes in land cover, such as change of water cover (e.g. rising sea level, drying up of lakes and outburst floods) or deforestation, particularly through human use of the land, can affect the climate. The reflectivity of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so that precipitation is also affected. Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release black carbon, which darkens snow making it easier to melt. − − = = = = 土地利用和覆盖变化 = = = 土地覆盖变化，例如水覆盖变化。海平面上升、湖泊干涸和洪水爆发)或森林砍伐，特别是人类对土地的使用，都会影响气候。该区域的反射率可能发生变化，导致该区域获得的阳光多少有所减少。此外，植被与水文循环相互作用，因此降水也受到影响。地表火灾释放的温室气体进入大气层，释放出黑碳，使雪变黑，更容易融化。 − − [终译]土地覆盖的变化，如水覆盖的变化（例如海平面上升、湖泊干涸和洪水爆发）或森林砍伐，特别是通过人类利用土地，都会影响气候。该区域的反射率可能会发生变化，导致该区域能够捕获的阳光有所减小。此外，植被与水循环相互作用，因此降水也会受到影响。地表火灾向大气中释放温室气体，释放黑碳，使雪变黑，使其更容易融化。 − − === Responses and feedbacks === − [终译]响应和反馈 − − The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium.{{sfn|Ruddiman|2001|pp=10–12}} − − The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium. − − = = = 反应和反馈 = = = 气候系统的不同要素对外部强迫作出不同的反应。这些成分之间的一个重要区别是它们对外力作出反应的速度。大气层通常会在几个小时到几个星期内作出反应，而深海和冰原则需要几个世纪到几千年才能达到新的平衡。 − − [终译]气候系统的不同要素以不同的方式对外部强迫作出反应。这些组分之间的一个重要区别是它们对强迫的反应速度。大气通常会在几个小时到几周内做出反应，而深海和冰原则需要几个世纪到几千年的时间才能达到一种新的平衡。 − − The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be [[climate change feedback|damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks]]. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher [[albedo]] or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further.{{sfn|Ruddiman|2001|pp=16–17}} − − The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher albedo or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further. − − 组分对外部强迫的初始响应可以通过负反馈抑制，也可以通过正反馈增强。例如，太阳强度的显著降低将迅速导致地球温度下降，从而使冰雪覆盖面积扩大。额外的冰雪具有更高的反照率或反射率，因此在被整个气候系统吸收之前，会将更多的太阳辐射反射回太空; 这反过来又会导致地球进一步降温。 − − [终译]组分对外力强迫的初始响应可以通过负反馈抑制，通过正反馈增强。例如，太阳强度的显著降低会迅速导致地球温度的下降，从而使冰雪覆盖面积扩大。额外的冰雪具有更高的反照率或反射率，因此在被整个气候系统吸收之前，会将更多的太阳辐射反射回太空；这反过来会导致地球进一步降温。 − − == Notes and Sources == − − == Notes and Sources == − − = 笔记和资料来源 = = − === Notes === − {{Reflist}} − + 第250行：
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无编辑摘要
气候系统可能会由于内部的变化和外部的强迫而发生变化。这些外部强迫可能是自然现象，比如太阳强度的变化和火山爆发，也可能是由人类引起的。吸热性温室气体的积累正在导致全球变暖，主要是由人类燃烧的化石燃料排放。人类的活动也会释放起冷却作用的气溶胶，但是它们的净效应远小于温室气体。不同气候系统组成部分的反馈过程可以放大这些变化。
== 气候系统的组成部分 ==
== 气候系统的组成部分 ==
[[大气层]]包裹着地球，从地表延伸了数百公里。它主要由惰性氮气（78%）、氧气（21%）和氩气（0.9%）组成。<ref name='Barry&Hall-McKim2014'>Barry, Roger G.; Hall-McKim, Eileen A. (2014). Essentials of the Earth's Climate System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03725-0.</ref><ref name='Goosse2015'>Goosse, Hugues (2015). Climate System Dynamics and Modelling. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08389-9.</ref>大气中一些微量气体是对气候系统运行最为重要的气体，如水蒸气和二氧化碳，因为它们是温室气体，允许来自太阳的可见光穿透到地球表面，但是阻止地球表面放射出的一些红外线辐射，以平衡太阳辐射。这种现象使地球表面温度上升。这将导致表面温度上升。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'>Gettelman, Andrew; Rood, Richard B. (2016). "Components of the Climate System". Demystifying Climate Models. Earth Systems Data and Models. Vol. 2. pp. 13–22. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-48959-8_2. ISBN 978-3-662-48957-4.</ref>水循环是水在大气中的运动。水循环不仅决定了降水的模式，而且影响整个气候系统的能量运动。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'/>
[[大气层]]包裹着地球，从地表延伸了数百公里。它主要由惰性氮气（78%）、氧气（21%）和氩气（0.9%）组成。大气中一些微量气体是对气候系统运行最为重要的气体，如水蒸气和二氧化碳，因为它们是温室气体，允许来自太阳的可见光穿透到地球表面，但是阻止地球表面放射出的一些红外线辐射，以平衡太阳辐射。这种现象使地球表面温度上升。这将导致表面温度上升。水循环是水在大气中的运动。水循环不仅决定了降水的模式，而且影响整个气候系统的能量运动。
[[水圈]]包含了地球上所有的液态水，其中大部分都在海洋中。海洋覆盖了地球表面的71%，平均深度接近4公里（2.5英里），<ref name='Goosse2015'/>海洋热量的含量远远大于大气层承载的热量。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'/>海水含盐量平均约为3.5%，但在空间上有所不同。<ref name='Goosse2015'/>微咸水存在于河口和一些湖泊中。大多数淡水都被保存在冰雪中，总量占所有水量的2.5%。<ref name='Desonie2008'>Desonie, Dana (2008). Hydrosphere: Freshwater Systems and Pollution (Our Fragile Planet): Fresh Water Systems and Pollution. Chelsea House books. ISBN 9780816062157.</ref>
[[水圈]]包含了地球上所有的液态水，其中大部分都在海洋中。海洋覆盖了地球表面的71%，平均深度接近4公里（2.5英里），海洋热量的含量远远大于大气层承载的热量。海水含盐量平均约为3.5%，但在空间上有所不同。微咸水存在于河口和一些湖泊中。大多数淡水都被保存在冰雪中，总量占所有水量的2.5%。
气候系统中固态的水都在冰冻圈中。[[冰冻圈]]包括海冰、冰原、永久冻土层和积雪覆盖层。因为北半球比南半球有更多的土地，所以北半球的大部分地区都被雪覆盖了。<ref name='Goosse2015'/>南北半球有相同数量的海冰。格陵兰岛和南极洲的冰原中含有大量结冰的水，平均高度约为2公里（1.2英里）。这些冰原慢慢地流向它们的边缘。<ref name='Goosse2015'/>
气候系统中固态的水都在冰冻圈中。[[冰冻圈]]包括海冰、冰原、永久冻土层和积雪覆盖层。因为北半球比南半球有更多的土地，所以北半球的大部分地区都被雪覆盖了。南北半球有相同数量的海冰。格陵兰岛和南极洲的冰原中含有大量结冰的水，平均高度约为2公里（1.2英里）。这些冰原慢慢地流向它们的边缘。
[[地壳]]，特别是山脉和山谷，塑造了全球的风型：广阔的山脉形成了抵御风的屏障，并影响了降雨的地点和数量。<ref name='Goosse2015'/><ref name='Houze2012'>Houze, Robert A. (6 January 2012). "Orographic effects on precipitating clouds". Reviews of Geophysics. 50 (1): RG1001. Bibcode:2012RvGeo..50.1001H. doi:10.1029/2011RG000365. S2CID 46645620.</ref>靠近开阔海洋的陆地比远离海洋的陆地的气候更为温和。<ref name='Barry&Hall-McKim2014'/>为了模拟气候，土地通常被认为是静态的，因为与构成气候系统的其他元素相比，土地的变化非常缓慢。<ref name='Gettelman&Rood2016'/>大陆的位置决定了海洋的几何形状，并因此影响了海洋环流的模式。海洋的位置对于控制全球热量和水分的传递非常重要，因此，对于决定全球气候也非常重要。<ref name='Haug&Keigwin2004'>Haug, Gerald H.; Keigwin, Lloyd D. (22 March 2004). "How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic". Oceanus. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 42 (2).</ref>
[[地壳]]，特别是山脉和山谷，塑造了全球的风型：广阔的山脉形成了抵御风的屏障，并影响了降雨的地点和数量。靠近开阔海洋的陆地比远离海洋的陆地的气候更为温和。为了模拟气候，土地通常被认为是静态的，因为与构成气候系统的其他元素相比，土地的变化非常缓慢。大陆的位置决定了海洋的几何形状，并因此影响了海洋环流的模式。海洋的位置对于控制全球热量和水分的传递非常重要，因此，对于决定全球气候也非常重要。
最后，生物圈也与气候系统的其他部分相互作用。植被通常比下面的土壤更暗或更浅，所以太阳的热量或多或少会被植被覆盖的地区吸收。植被善于捕获水分，然后水被植被的根吸收。如果没有植被，这些水就会流向最近的河流或其他水体。最后，生物圈也与气候系统的其他部分相互作用。植被通常比下面的土壤更暗或更浅，所以太阳的热量或多或少会被植被覆盖的地区吸收。植被善于捕获水分，然后水被植被的根吸收。如果没有植被，这些水就会流向最近的河流或其他水体。被植物吸收的水会蒸发，从而促进水循环。降水和温度影响着不同植被带的分布。<ref name='Goosse2015'/>小型浮游植物的生长从海水中吸收的碳几乎和大气中的陆地植物一样多。虽然从技术上讲，人类是生物圈的一部分，但由于人类对地球的巨大影响，它们通常被视为地球气候系统的独立组成部分，即人类圈。
== Flows of energy, water and elements ==
== 能量、水和元素的流量 ==
[[File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Earth's atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy imbalance between the equator and the poles. It is further influenced by the [[Earth's rotation|rotation of Earth]] around its own axis.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=101}}[终译]地球的大气环流是由赤道和两极之间的能量不平衡驱动的。它还进一步受到地球绕其自身轴线自转的影响。|链接=Special:FilePath/NASA_depiction_of_earth_global_atmospheric_circulation.jpg]][终译]能量、水和元素的流量
[[File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|地球的大气环流是由赤道和两极之间的能量不平衡驱动的。它还进一步受到地球绕其自身轴线自转的影响。]]
=== 能量和大气环流 ===
气候系统接收来自太阳的能量，从地核获得的能量要少得多，从月球获得的潮汐能也是如此。地球以两种形式向外层空间释放能量：它直接反射一部分太阳辐射能，并发出红外线辐射，称为黑体辐射。输入和输出能源的平衡，以及能量通过气候系统的过程，决定了地球的能量收支。当输入的总能量大于输出能量时，地球的能量收支为正，气候系统会变暖。如果更多的能源消耗出去，能量收支是负的，地球会变冷。
到达热带地区的能量比到达极地地区的能量多，温差驱动了大气和海洋的全球环流。变暖时空气上升，向极地流动，冷却时再次下沉，返回赤道。由于角动量守恒，地球的自转使空气在北半球向右转移，在南半球向左转移，从而形成了不同的大气单元。季风，风和降水的季节性变化主要发生在热带地区，因为陆地比海洋更容易升温。温差引起陆地和海洋之间的压差，驱动稳定的风。
含盐量较高的海水具有较高的密度，密度差异在海洋环流中起着重要作用。热盐环流将热量从热带地区输送到极地地区。海洋环流进一步被风的相互作用驱动。盐的组分也会影响冰点的温度。垂直运动可以将更冷的水带到表面，这一过程称为上升流，使上面的空气冷却。
===水循环===
水循环描述了它是如何不断地在地球表面和大气层之间移动的。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/how-weather-works/water-cycle|title=The water cycle|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref>植物蒸腾，阳光蒸发海洋和其他水体中的水分，留下盐和其他矿物质。蒸发的淡水后来又降回到地表。降水和蒸发量在全球范围内的分布并不均匀，一些地区，如热带地区的降雨量大于蒸发量，而其他地区的蒸发量多于降雨。水的蒸发需要大量的能量，而在凝结过程中会释放出大量的热量。这种潜伏的热量是大气中能量的主要来源。
=== 生物化学循环 ===
[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|thumb|330x330px|碳在气候系统的不同元素之间不断输送:由生物固定，通过海洋和大气输送。]]
对生命至关重要的化学元素不断地通过气候系统的不同组成部分进行循环。碳循环对气候直接重要，因为它决定了大气中两种重要温室气体的浓度：二氧化碳和甲烷。在碳循环的快速阶段，植物通过光合作用从大气中吸收二氧化碳；这些二氧化碳随后通过生物的呼吸重新释放出来。作为缓慢碳循环的一部分，火山通过脱气释放二氧化碳，从地壳和地幔中释放二氧化碳。由于大气中的二氧化碳使雨水有点酸性，这种雨可以慢慢溶解一些岩石，这个过程被称为风化。以这种方式释放出来的矿物质，被运送到海洋中，被生物利用，它们的遗骸可以形成沉积岩，将碳带回岩石圈。<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riebeek |first1=Holli |title=The Carbon Cycle |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/CarbonCycle |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=16 June 2011 }}</ref>
氮循环描述了活性氮的流动。由于大气中的氮是惰性的，微生物首先必须将其转化为活性氮化合物，这个过程被称为固氮，然后才能被用作生物圈的组成部分。人类活动在碳循环和氮循环中都发挥着重要作用：化石燃料的燃烧已经将碳从岩石圈转移到大气中，而化肥的使用也大大地增加了可用的固定氮的数量。
== 气候系统内部的变化 ==
气候不断变化，时间尺度从季节到地球的寿命不等。由系统自身的组成部分和动态引起的变化被称为内部气候变化。该系统也可以经历来自系统外部现象的外力（例如，地球轨道的变化）。更长的变化，通常被定义为持续至少30年的变化，被称为气候变化，<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/science-climate-change/1-what-is-climate-change|title=1. What is climate change?|series=The science of climate change - Questions and Answers|author= Australian Academy of Science|website=www.science.org.au|year=2015|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>尽管这个短语通常指当前的全球气候变化。<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/climate-change/|title=Climate Change|author=National Geographic|date=2019-03-28|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>当气候变化时，影响可能会相互作用，以一系列的气候反馈穿过系统的其他部分（如反照率变化），产生许多不同的影响（如海平面上升）
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =.植物蒸发蒸腾，阳光蒸发海洋和其他水体的水，留下盐和其他矿物质。蒸发的淡水后来又降回到地表。降水和蒸发在全球的分布并不均匀，有些地区，如热带地区的降雨量多于蒸发量，而另一些地区的蒸发量多于降雨量。水的蒸发需要大量的能量，而大量的热量在冷凝过程中释放出来。这种潜热是大气中能量的主要来源。
=== 内部变化性 ===
[[File:El-nino.png|left|thumb|330x330px|12月正常海面温度与1997年强烈厄尔尼诺现象期间温度的差异。厄尔尼诺现象通常会给墨西哥和美国带来更潮湿的天气。<ref>{{cite web |first1=Mike |last1=Carlowicz |first2=Stephanie Schollaert |last2=Uz |title=El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ElNino |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=14 February 2017 }}</ref>
即使没有外部推动（外部强迫），气候系统的组成部分不断变化。其中的一个例子是，在大气层中北大西洋振荡(NAO)，它作为大气压力跷跷板。葡萄牙亚速尔群岛的压力通常都很高，而冰岛上空的压力通常都较低。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/north-atlantic-oscillation|title=North Atlantic Oscillation|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-03}}</ref>压力的差异会产生振荡，这将影响北大西洋地区到欧亚大陆中部的天气模式。例如，格陵兰岛和加拿大的天气在NA性期间是寒冷和干燥的。北大西洋振荡的不同阶段可以持续数十年。
海洋和大气也可以共同作用，自发地产生内部的气候变化，一次可以持续数年到几十年。这种类型变化的例子包括厄尔尼诺-南方振荡、太平洋年代际振荡和大西洋数十年振荡。这些变化不仅可以通过在深海和大气之间重新分配热量来影响全球平均地表温度；而且也可以通过改变云、水蒸气或海冰的分布来影响地球的总能量收支。
由于海洋的质量比大气多数百倍，这些振荡在海洋方面可以在百年时间尺度上产生变化，因此具有非常高的热惯性。例如，热盐环流等海洋过程的改变在世界海洋中重新分配热量中起着关键作用。了解内部变化有助于科学家将最近的气候变化归因于温室气体。
=== 外部气候强迫 ===
在长时间尺度上，气候主要取决于系统中有多少能量和能量的去向。当地球的能量收支发生变化时，气候会随之而来。能量收支的变化被称为强迫，当变化是由气候系统的五个组成部分之外的某种东西引起时，这种变化被称为外部强迫。例如，火山是由于地球内部的深层过程，而这些过程并不被认为是气候系统的一部分。行星外的变化，如太阳的变化和到来的小行星，也是气候系统五个组成部分的“外部”，人类的行动也是如此。
量化和比较气候强迫的主要价值是辐射强迫
== Changes within the climate system ==
==== 入射阳光 ====
太阳是地球主要的输入能量来源，驱动大气环流。来自太阳的能量在较短的时间尺度上发生变化，包括11年的太阳周期和较长的时间尺度。虽然太阳周期太小，不能直接使地球表面变暖和变冷，但它确实直接影响大气层的更高层，即平流层，这可能会对地表附近的大气产生影响。
地球运动的微小变化会导致到达地球表面的阳光的季节性分布以及全球分布的巨大变化，尽管不会影响到全球和年平均阳光。这三种类型的运动学变化分别是地球偏心率的变化、地球自转轴倾斜角度的变化和地球旋转轴的运动。这些因素共同产生了米兰科维奇旋回，它们影响着气候，并且与冰川期和间冰期有着显著的相关性。<ref name="msu milankovitch">{{cite web |url=http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/time1/milankov.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716144130/http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/time1/milankov.htm|archive-date=2011-07-16|title= Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation|access-date=2 April 2009 |publisher= University of Montana}}</ref>
==== 温室气体 ====
温室气体通过吸收长波辐射，将热量捕获在大气层的下部。在地球的过去，许多过程导致了温室气体浓度的变化。目前，人类的排放是导致一些温室气体浓度增加的原因，如二氧化碳、甲烷和一氧化二氮。造成温室效应的主要因素是水蒸气（~50%），其中云（~25%）和二氧化碳（~20%）也发挥了重要作用。当二氧化碳等长期存在的温室气体浓度升高，温度上升时，水蒸气的数量也会增加，因此水蒸气和云不会被视为外部强迫，而是反馈。岩石风化是一个从大气中去除碳的非常缓慢的过程。
= = 气候系统内部的变化 = = 气候是不断变化的，时间尺度从季节到地球的生命周期不等。由系统自身组成部分和动态引起的变化称为内部气候变异性。系统也可以经历来自系统外部现象的外部强迫(例如:。地球轨道的变化)。更长的变化，通常定义为持续至少30年的变化，被称为气候变化，尽管这个短语通常指的是当前的全球气候变化。当气候变化时，这些影响可能会相互作用，通过一系列气候反馈通过系统的其他部分(例如:。反照率变化) ，产生许多不同的效果(例如:。海平面上升)。
==== 气溶胶 ====
大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要是散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则是吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接效应包括气溶胶可以作为云的凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的天然来源包括浪花、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消部分温室气体排放的变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短的时间内落到表面。
[终译]气候不断变化，时间尺度从季节到地球的寿命不等。由系统自身的组成部分和动态引起的变化被称为内部气候变化。该系统也可以经历来自系统外部现象的外力（例如，地球轨道的变化）。更长的变化，通常被定义为持续至少30年的变化，被称为气候变化，尽管这个短语通常指当前的全球气候变化。当气候变化时，影响可能会相互作用，以一系列的气候反馈穿过系统的其他部分（如反照率变化），产生许多不同的影响（如海平面上升）
[[File:Msu 1978-2010.jpg|thumb|right|从1979年到2010年的大气温度，由美国宇航局卫星确定，主要火山爆发（埃尔奇肯和皮纳图博）释放的气溶胶。厄尔尼诺现象是海洋变化的个别事件。]]
虽然火山在技术上讲是岩石圈的一部分，岩石圈本身是气候系统的一部分，但火山活动被定义为一种外部强迫。平均而言，每世纪只有几次火山喷发，通过向平流层喷出数吨的二氧化硫来影响地球的气候超过一年。二氧化硫通过化学方式转化为气溶胶，通过阻挡地球表面的一部分阳光来导致降温。小的喷发对大气的影响很微妙。
= = = = 内部变率 = = = = 气候系统的组成部分不断变化，即使没有外部推动(外部强迫)。大气层中的一个例子是北大西洋振盪，它作为一种大气压力运作。葡萄牙亚速尔群岛的气压通常较高，而冰岛上空的气压通常较低。气压的差异会产生振荡，从而影响北大西洋地区到欧亚大陆中部的气候模式。例如，格陵兰岛和加拿大的天气在北大西洋涛动期间是寒冷和干燥的。北大西洋振盪的不同阶段可以持续数十年。
==== 土地使用和覆盖物变更 ====
土地覆盖的变化，如水覆盖的变化（例如海平面上升、湖泊干涸和洪水爆发）或森林砍伐，特别是通过人类利用土地，都会影响气候。该区域的反射率可能会发生变化，导致该区域能够捕获的阳光有所减小。此外，植被与水循环相互作用，因此降水也会受到影响。地表火灾向大气中释放温室气体，释放黑碳，使雪变黑，使其更容易融化。
=== 响应和反馈===
气候系统的不同要素以不同的方式对外部强迫作出反应。这些组分之间的一个重要区别是它们对强迫的反应速度。大气通常会在几个小时到几周内做出反应，而深海和冰原则需要几个世纪到几千年的时间才能达到一种新的平衡。
组分对外力强迫的初始响应可以通过负反馈抑制，通过正反馈增强。例如，太阳强度的显著降低会迅速导致地球温度的下降，从而使冰雪覆盖面积扩大。额外的冰雪具有更高的反照率或反射率，因此在被整个气候系统吸收之前，会将更多的太阳辐射反射回太空；这反过来会导致地球进一步降温。
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{{refend}}
{{refend}}
----
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[[Category:Climate variability and change]]
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