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第1行： − 本词条由范星辰翻译。+ + + + + − {{Short description|American medical doctor & academic}} − {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2011}} 第16行：
第18行： − '''Stuart Alan Kauffman''' (born September 28, 1939) is an American medical doctor, [[theoretical biology|theoretical biologist]], and [[complex system]]s researcher who studies the [[origin of life]] on Earth. He was a professor at the [[University of Chicago]], [[University of Pennsylvania]], and [[University of Calgary]]. He is currently [[emeritus]] professor of biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania and affiliate faculty at the [[Institute for Systems Biology]]. He has a number of awards including a [[MacArthur Fellowship]] and a [[American Society for Cybernetics#Wiener and McCulloch awards|Wiener Medal]]. + − 【最终篇】斯图尔特·艾伦·考夫曼(Stuart Alan Kauffman, 1939年9月28日出生)，美国医学博士、理论生物学家和复杂系统研究员，主要研究地球上生命的起源。他是芝加哥大学、宾夕法尼亚大学和卡尔加里大学的教授。他目前是宾夕法尼亚大学生物化学荣誉退休教授和系统生物学研究所的附属教员。他获得过许多奖项，包括麦克阿瑟奖学金和维也纳奖章。+ − He is best known for arguing that the complexity of biological systems and organisms might result as much from [[self-organization]] and far-from-equilibrium dynamics as from Darwinian [[natural selection]], as discussed in his book ''Origins of Order'' (1993). In 1967{{sfn|Kauffman|McCulloch|1967}} and 1969{{sfn|Kauffman|1969}} he used random [[Boolean network]]s to investigate generic self-organizing properties of gene regulatory networks, proposing that cell types are dynamical attractors in gene regulatory networks and that cell differentiation can be understood as transitions between attractors. Recent evidence suggests that cell types in humans and other organisms are attractors.{{sfn|Huang|Kauffman|2009}}{{sfn|Nykter|Price|Aldana|Ramsey|2008}} In 1971 he suggested that a zygote may not be able to access all the cell type attractors in its gene regulatory network during development and that some of the developmentally inaccessible cell types might be cancer cell types.{{sfn|Kauffman|1971b}} This suggested the possibility of "cancer differentiation therapy". He also proposed the self-organized emergence of collectively [[autocatalytic set]]s of [[polymers]], specifically [[peptides]], for the origin of molecular reproduction,{{sfn|Kauffman|1971a}}{{sfn|Kauffman|2011}} which have found experimental support.{{sfn|Dadon|Wagner|Ashkenasy|2008}}{{sfn|Dadon|Wagner|Cohen-Luria|Ashkenasy|2012}} − − − − 【最终篇】正如他在1993年出版的《秩序的起源》(Origins of Order)一书中所讨论的那样，他最为人所知的观点是，生物系统和有机体的复杂性可能来自自组织和远离平衡的动力学，也可能来自达尔文的自然选择。1967年和1969年，他利用随机布尔网络研究基因调控网络的一般自组织特性，提出细胞类型是基因调控网络中的动态吸引子，细胞分化可以理解为吸引子之间的过渡。最近的证据表明，人类和其他生物体中的细胞类型是吸引物。1971年，他提出受精卵在发育过程中可能无法接触到其基因调控网络中所有的细胞类型吸引子，一些发育中无法接触到的细胞类型可能是癌细胞类型。这暗示了“癌症分化治疗”的可能性。他还提出了聚合物集体自催化集的自组织出现，特别是多肽，作为分子繁殖的起源，这已经得到了实验支持。 − − ==Education and early career== − Kauffman graduated from [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] in 1960, was awarded the BA (Hons) by [[Oxford University]] (where he was a [[Marshall Scholar]]) in 1963, and completed a medical degree (M.D.) at the [[University of California, San Francisco]] in 1968. After completing his internship, he moved into [[developmental genetics]] of the fruitfly, holding appointments first at the [[University of Chicago]] from 1969 to 1973, the National Cancer Institute from 1973 to 1975, and then at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] from 1975 to 1994, where he rose to professor of [[biochemistry]] and [[biophysics]].+ − − − − 【最终篇】1960年考夫曼毕业于达特茅斯大学，1963年被牛津大学授予荣誉文学士学位(马歇尔奖学金)，1968年在加州大学旧金山分校获得医学学位(医学博士)。完成实习之后,他搬进了果蝇的发育遗传学,持有任命第一芝加哥大学从1969年到1973年,美国国家癌症研究所从1973年到1975年,然后在宾夕法尼亚大学从1975年到1994年,他在那里的生物化学和生物物理学教授。 − ==Career== − Kauffman became known through his association with the [[Santa Fe Institute]] (a non-profit research institute dedicated to the study of [[complex systems]]), where he was faculty in residence from 1986 to 1997, and through his work on [[model (abstract)|models]] in various areas of [[biology]]. These included [[autocatalytic set]]s in [[origin of life]] research, [[gene regulatory network]]s in [[developmental biology]], and [[fitness landscape]]s in [[evolutionary biology]]. With Marc Ballivet, Kauffman holds the founding broad biotechnology patents in [[combinatorial chemistry]] and applied [[molecular evolution]], first issued in France in 1987,<ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/EP0229046A1 |country=EP |number=0229046A1 |title=Procédé d'obtention d'ADN, ARN, peptides, polypeptides ou protéines, par une technique de recombinaison d'ADN}}</ref> in England in 1989, and later in North America.<ref>{{patent|US|5,723,323|"Method of identifying a stochastically-generated peptide, polypeptide, or protein having ligand binding property and compositions thereof"}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/CA1339937C |country=CA |number=1339937C |title=Procedure for obtaining DNA, RNA peptides, polypeptides, or proteins by recombinant DNA techniques}}</ref>+ − − − 【最终篇】考夫曼之所以为人所知，是因为他与圣达菲研究所(一个致力于研究复杂系统的非营利研究机构)的合作，他在1986年至1997年期间担任该研究所的常驻教员，以及他在生物学各个领域的模型研究工作。这些包括生命起源研究中的自催化集，发育生物学中的基因调控网络，以及进化生物学中的健康景观。与Marc Ballivet合作，考夫曼在组合化学和应用分子进化领域拥有广泛的生物技术专利，1987年在法国首次发布，1989年在英国发布，后来在北美发布。 − − In 1996, with [[Ernst & Young|Ernst and Young]], Kauffman started [[BiosGroup]], a [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], [[New Mexico]]-based for-profit company that applied [[complex systems]] methodology to business problems. BiosGroup was acquired by [[NuTech Solutions]] in early 2003. NuTech was bought by [[Netezza]] in 2008, and later by IBM.<ref>{{cite news|title=NuTech Solutions to Acquire BiosGroup's Software Development Operations|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20030220005174/en/NuTech-Solutions-Acquire-BiosGroups-Software-Development-Operations|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=20 February 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Netezza Corporation Acquires NuTech Solutions|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080515006480/en/Netezza-Corporation-Acquires-NuTech-Solutions|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=15 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=IBM to Acquire Netezza|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/32514.wss|website=IBM News Room|publisher=IBM|access-date=5 July 2015|date=20 September 2010}}</ref> − − − 【最终篇】1996年，考夫曼与安永会计师事务所(Ernst and Young)合作，成立了位于新墨西哥州圣达菲(Santa Fe)的营利性公司BiosGroup，该公司将复杂的系统方法应用于商业问题。BiosGroup于2003年初被NuTech Solutions收购。NuTech在2008年被Netezza收购，后来又被IBM收购。 − − From 2005 to 2009 Kauffman held a joint appointment at the [[University of Calgary]] in biological sciences, physics, and astronomy. He was also an adjunct professor in the Department of Philosophy at the [[University of Calgary]]. He was an iCORE (Informatics Research Circle of Excellence) chair and the director of the Institute for Biocomplexity and Informatics. Kauffman was also invited to help launch the Science and Religion initiative at [[Harvard Divinity School]]; serving as visiting professor in 2009. − − − 【最终篇】从2005年到2009年，考夫曼在卡尔加里大学担任生物科学、物理学和天文学的联合职位。他也是卡尔加里大学哲学系的兼职教授。他曾担任iCORE(信息学卓越研究圈)主席和生物复杂性和信息学研究所所长。考夫曼还被邀请帮助在哈佛神学院发起科学与宗教倡议，并于2009年担任客座教授。 − − In January 2009 Kauffman became a Finland Distinguished Professor (FiDiPro) at [[Tampere University of Technology]], Department of Signal Processing. The appointment ended in December, 2012. The subject of the FiDiPro research project is the development of delayed [[stochastic calculus|stochastic models]] of [[genetic regulatory network]]s based on [[gene expression]] data at the [[single-molecule experiment|single molecule]] level. − − 【最终篇】2009年1月考夫曼成为坦佩雷科技大学信号处理系芬兰特聘教授(FiDiPro)，该任命于2012年12月结束。FiDiPro研究项目的主题是基于单分子水平的基因表达数据开发基因调控网络的延迟随机模型。+ − In January 2010 Kauffman joined the [[University of Vermont]] faculty where he continued his work for two years with UVM's Complex Systems Center.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vermontbiz.com/people/september/stuart-kauffman-complex-systems-pioneer-join-uvm-faculty |title=Stuart Kauffman, complex systems pioneer, to join UVM faculty |work=Vermontbiz.com |publisher=Vermont Business Magazine |date= September 30, 2009 |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> From early 2011 to April 2013, Kauffman was a regular contributor to the [[NPR]] Blog 13.7, Cosmos and Culture,<ref name=NPR>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/people/340090638/stuart-kauffman |title=Stuart Kauffman |work=NPR.org |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> with topics ranging from the life sciences, systems biology, and medicine, to spirituality, economics, and the law.<ref name=NPR/> He was also a regular contributor to [[Edge.org]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edge.org/memberbio/stuart_a_kauffman |title=Stuart A. Kauffman |work=Edge.org |publisher=Edge Foundation |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> + − 【最终篇】2010年1月考夫曼加入佛蒙特大学，在那里他继续在佛蒙特大学的复杂系统中心工作了两年。从2011年初到2013年4月，考夫曼定期为NPR博客13.7“宇宙与文化”撰稿，主题涵盖生命科学、系统生物学、医学、灵性、经济学和法律。他也是Edge.org的定期撰稿人。 − In May 2013 he joined the Institute for Systems Biology, in Seattle, Washington. Following the death of his wife, Kauffman cofounded Transforming Medicine: The Elizabeth Kauffman Institute.{{sfn|Kauffman|Hill|Hood|Huang|2014b}}+ + − 【最终篇】2013年5月，他加入了位于华盛顿州西雅图的系统生物学研究所。在他的妻子去世后，考夫曼与人共同创办了转化医学:伊丽莎白考夫曼研究所。 − In 2014, Kauffman with Samuli Niiranen and Gabor Vattay was issued a founding patent<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120071333 |title=Uses of systems with degrees of freedom poised between fully quantum and fully classical states }}</ref> on the ''poised realm'' (see below), an apparently new "state of matter" hovering reversibly between quantum and classical realms.{{sfn|Vattay|Salahub|Csaibai|Nassmi|2015}}+ − 【最终篇】2014年，考夫曼与萨穆里·尼拉宁(Samuli Niiranen)和嘉宝·瓦泰(Gabor Vattay)获得了一项关于“平衡状态”(realm，见下文)的创始专利，这是一种显然是新的“物质状态”，在量子领域和经典领域之间可逆地徘徊。 − In 2015, he was invited to help initiate a general a discussion on rethinking economic growth for the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://academicimpact.un.org/content/rethinking-economic-growth/ |title=Rethinking Economic Growth |date=11 May 2015 |website=academicimpact.un.org |access-date=2020-05-26}}</ref> Around the same time, he did research with [[University of Oxford]] professor [[Teppo Felin]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felin | first1 = Teppo | last2 = Kauffman | first2 = Stuart | last3 = Koppl | first3 = Roger | last4 = Longo | first4 = Giuseppe | year = 2014 | title = Economic opportunity and evolution: Beyond landscapes and bounded rationality | url =https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01415115/file/FelinKauffmanKopplLongoSEJ2014.pdf | journal = Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 269–282 | doi=10.1002/sej.1184}}</ref>+ + − 【最终篇】2015年，他应邀发起了一场关于重新思考联合国经济增长的一般性讨论。大约在同一时间，他与牛津大学教授Teppo Felin进行了合作研究。 − − ==Fitness landscapes== 第88行：
第58行： − Kauffman's NK model defines a [[combinatorial]] [[phase space]], consisting of every string (chosen from a given alphabet) of length <math>N</math>. For each string in this search space, a [[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] value (called the ''[[fitness function|fitness]]'') is defined. If a distance [[metric (mathematics)|metric]] is defined between strings, the resulting structure is a ''landscape''.+ − 【最终篇】考夫曼的NK模型定义了一个组合相空间，由长度为N的每个字符串(从给定的字母表中选择)组成。对于这个搜索空间中的每个字符串，定义了一个标量值(称为适应度)。如果在字符串之间定义了距离度量，那么得到的结构就是一个地形。+ − − Fitness values are defined according to the specific incarnation of the model, but the key feature of the NK model is that the fitness of a given string <math>S</math> is the sum of contributions from each locus <math>S_i</math> in the string: − 【最终篇】适应度值是根据模型的具体具体化来定义的，但NK模型的关键特征是给定字符串S的适应度是字符串中每个轨迹S_i的贡献之和: − f (s) = sum _ i f (s _ i) , − − and the contribution from each locus in general depends on the value of <math>K</math> other loci: + − :f(S_i) = f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K), \, − 【最终篇】一般来说，每个基因座的贡献取决于 k 个其他基因座的值: − − f (s _ i) = f (s _ i，s ^ i _ 1，点，s ^ i _ k) ， − − where <math>S^i_j</math> are the other loci upon which the fitness of <math>S_i</math> depends. − − − 【最终篇】其中 s ^ i _ j 是 s _ i 适合度所依赖的其他位点。 − − Hence, the fitness function <math>f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K)</math> is a [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] between strings of length ''K'' + 1 and scalars, which Weinberger's later work calls "fitness contributions". Such fitness contributions are often chosen randomly from some specified probability distribution. + − 【最终篇】因此，适应度函数f(S_i, S^i_1， \dots, S^i_K)是长度为K + 1的字符串和标量之间的映射，温伯格（Weinberger）后来的工作称之为“适应度贡献”。这样的适应度贡献通常是从某些特定的概率分布中随机选择的。 − In 1991, Weinberger published a detailed analysis<ref name="AnalyticOptima">{{cite journal|last=Weinberger|first=Edward|journal=Physical Review A|date=November 15, 1991|volume=44|issue=10|series=10|pages=6399–6413|doi=10.1103/physreva.44.6399|title=Local properties of Kauffman's N-k model: A tunably rugged energy landscape|pmid=9905770|bibcode=1991PhRvA..44.6399W}}</ref> of the case in which <math>1 << k \le N</math> and the fitness contributions are chosen randomly. His analytical estimate of the number of local optima was later shown to be flawed.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} However, numerical experiments included in Weinberger's analysis support his analytical result that the expected fitness of a string is normally distributed with a mean of approximately+ − <math> \mu + \sigma \sqrt{{2 \ln (k+1)} \over {k+1}}</math> − and a variance of approximately − <math> {{(k+1)\sigma^2} \over {N[k+1 + 2(k+2)\ln(k+1)]}}</math>. − 【最终篇】1991年，温伯格发表了一篇详细的案例分析，其中1 < k le N和适应度贡献是随机选择的。他对局部最优解数目的分析估计后来被证明是有缺陷的。然而，温伯格Weinberger的分析中包含的数值实验支持了他的分析结果，即弦的期望适合度是正态分布的，其平均值和方差都是近似的。平均值约为 mu + sigma sqrt {2 ln (k + 1)}/{ k + 1} ，方差约为{(k + 1) sigma ^ 2}/{ n [ k + 1 + 2(k + 2) ln (k + 1)]}。+ − ==Recognition and awards== − Kauffman held a [[MacArthur Fellowship]] between 1987–1992. He also holds an Honorary Degree in Science from the University of Louvain (1997); He was awarded the Norbert Wiener Memorial Gold Medal for Cybernetics in 1973, the Gold Medal of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] in Rome in 1990, the Trotter Prize for Information and Complexity in 2001, and the Herbert Simon award for Complex Systems in 2013. He became a Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Canada]] in 2009.+ − − − 【最终篇】考夫曼在1987年至1992年期间举办了麦克阿瑟奖学金。他还获得卢万大学科学荣誉学位(1997年);他在1973年获得了诺伯特·维也纳控制论纪念奖金奖，1990年获得了罗马意大利猞猁之眼国家科学院（dei Lincei）金奖，2001年获得了特罗（Trotter）信息和复杂性奖，2013年获得了赫伯特 · 西蒙（Herbert Simon）复杂系统奖。他于2009年成为加拿大皇家学会会员。 − Kauffman is best known for arguing that the complexity of biological systems and organisms might result as much from [[self-organization#Biology|self-organization]] and far-from-equilibrium dynamics as from Darwinian [[natural selection]] in three areas of [[evolutionary biology]], namely [[population dynamics]], [[molecular evolution]], and [[morphogenesis]]. With respect to molecular biology, Kauffman's [[Structuralism (biology)|structuralist]] approach has been criticized for ignoring the role of [[energy]] in driving [[biochemistry|biochemical reactions]] in cells, which can fairly be called self-[[catalysis|catalyzing]] but which do not simply self-organize.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fox |first=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–2699 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref> Some biologists and physicists working in Kauffman's area have questioned his claims about self-organization and evolution. A case in point is some comments in the 2001 book ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Camazine |first1=Scott |last2=Deneubourg |first2=Jean-Louis |last3=Franks |first3=Nigel R. |last4=Sneyd |first4=James |last5=Theraulaz |first5=Guy |last6=Bonabeau |first6=Eric |date=2001 |title=Self-Organization in Biological Systems |series=Princeton Studies in Complexity |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 88–89], [https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283] |doi=10.2307/j.ctvzxx9tx |isbn=0691012113 |oclc=44876868 |jstor=j.ctvzxx9tx}}</ref> Roger Sansom's 2011 book ''Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development'' is an extended criticism of Kauffman's model of self-organization in relation to gene regulatory networks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sansom |first=Roger |date=2011 |title=Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve To Control Development |series=Life and Mind: Philosophical Issues in Biology and Psychology |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=9780262195812 |oclc=694600461 |doi=10.7551/mitpress/9780262195812.001.0001}} See also: {{cite journal |last=Wray |first=Gregory A. |date=December 2012 |title=Adaptation and Gene Networks: ''Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development'' [book review] |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1084–1085 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.12.10 |doi-access=free}}</ref>+ + − 【最终篇】考夫曼最著名的论点是，生物系统和有机体的复杂性可能来自自组织和远离平衡的动力学，也可能来自达尔文的自然选择，在进化生物学的三个领域，即种群动力学、分子进化和形态发生。在分子生物学方面，考夫曼的结构主义方法因忽视了能量在驱动细胞生化反应中的作用而受到批评，这种作用可以被称为自催化，但不是简单的自组织。一些在考夫曼领域工作的生物学家和物理学家对他关于自组织和进化的观点提出了质疑。一个恰当的例子是2001年出版的《生物系统中的自组织》一书中的一些评论。Roger Sansom在2011年出版的《天才基因:基因调控网络如何进化到控制发展》一书，是对考夫曼关于基因调控网络的自组织模型的扩展批评。参见: − Borrowing from [[spin glass]] models in physics, Kauffman invented "N-K" fitness landscapes, which have found applications in biology{{sfn|Kauffman|Johnsen|1991}} and economics.{{sfn|Rivkin|Siggelkow|2002}}{{sfn|Felin|Kauffman|Koppl|Longo|2014}} In related work, Kauffman and colleagues have examined subcritical, critical, and supracritical behavior in economic systems.{{sfn|Hanel|Kauffman|Thurner|2007}}+ − 【最终篇】考夫曼借鉴物理学中的自旋玻璃模型，发明了“N-K”适应性地形，并在生物学和经济学中得到了应用。在相关的工作中，考夫曼和他的同事研究了经济系统中的次批判、批判和超实践行为。 − Kauffman's work translates his biological findings to the [[mind-body problem]] and issues in neuroscience, proposing attributes of a new "poised realm" that hovers indefinitely between [[quantum coherence]] and [[Classical physics|classicality]]. He published on this topic in his paper "Answering Descartes: beyond Turing".{{sfn|Kauffman|2016}} With Giuseppe Longo and Maël Montévil, he wrote (January 2012) "No Entailing Laws, But Enablement in the Evolution of the Biosphere",{{sfn|Longo|Montévil|Kauffman|2012}} which argued that evolution is not "law entailed" like physics.+ − 【最终篇】考夫曼的工作将他的生物学发现转化为身心问题和神经科学问题，提出了一个无限期徘徊在量子一致性和古典主义之间的新“平衡领域”的属性。他在他的论文《回答笛卡尔:超越图灵》中发表了这一主题。与Giuseppe Longo和Maël Montévil，他写道(2012年1月)《生物圈进化中没有必然规律，但存在使能关系》，认为进化不像物理学那样是“必然规律”。+ − Kauffman's work is posted on Physics [[ArXiv]], including "Beyond the Stalemate: Mind/Body, Quantum Mechanics, Free Will, Possible Panpsychism, Possible Solution to the Quantum Enigma" (October 2014){{sfn|Kauffman|2014}} and "Quantum Criticality at the Origin of Life" (February 2015).{{sfn|Vattay|Salahub|Csaibai|Nassmi|2015}} − 【最终篇】考夫曼的作品发表在Physics ArXiv上，包括《超越僵局:身心、量子力学、自由意志、可能的泛心主义、量子谜的可能解决方案》(2014年10月)和《生命起源的量子临界性》(2015年2月)。+ − + − 【最终篇】考夫曼通过引入相邻可能的数学，为累积技术进化这一新兴领域做出了贡献。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tria |first1=F. |last2=Loreto |first2=V. |last3=Servedio |first3=V. D. P. |last4=Strogatz |first4=S. H. |date=July 2014 |title=The dynamics of correlated novelties |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=4 |pages=5890 |doi=10.1038/srep05890 |pmid=25080941 |pmc=5376195|arxiv=1310.1953 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4E5890T }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monechi |first1=Bernardo |last2=Ruiz-Serrano |first2=Álvaro |last3=Tria |first3=Francesca |last4=Loreto |first4=Vittorio |date=June 2017 |title=Waves of novelties in the expansion into the adjacent possible |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=e0179303 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179303 |pmid=28594909|pmc=5464662 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279303M |doi-access=free }}</ref>+ − He has published over 350 articles and 6 books: ''The Origins of Order'' (1993), ''At Home in the Universe'' (1995), ''Investigations'' (2000), ''Reinventing the Sacred'' (2008), ''Humanity in a Creative Universe'' (2016), and ''A World Beyond Physics'' (2019). − 【最终篇】他发表了350多篇文章和6本书:《秩序的起源》(1993年)、《在宇宙中安家》(1995年)、《调查》(2000年)、《重新创造神圣》(2008年)、《创造性宇宙中的人类》(2016年)和《超越物理学的世界》(2019年)。+ − In 2016, Kauffman wrote a children's story, "Patrick, Rupert, Sly & Gus Protocells", a narrative about unprestatable niche creation in the biosphere, which was later produced as a short animated video.<ref>The story can be read here: {{cite web |url=https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527002318/https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-date=2020-05-27 |url-status=live |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick S., Rupert R., Sly S., and Gus G. Protocells in Their Very Early Years |date=16 August 2016}} Kauffman narrates the story in 2017 here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/mxALd-rqSBc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170312233945/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc&feature=youtu.be Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick, Rupert, Sly, and Gus |website=[[YouTube]] |date=10 March 2017 |access-date=2020-05-26}}{{cbignore}} An animated version is here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/qKXt7zdLVR4 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20201002012309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4&t=663s Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4|title=The origins of life and its continuing wonder |website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=Science Animated |date=24 August 2020 |quote=Stuart Kauffman explains how life evolved from its earlier origins some 3,700 million years ago through the story of four protocells—Patrick, Rupert, Sly and Gus. He explains why our knowledge of the origins and early evolution of life can greatly help us understand our true place in the world.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> − − − 【最终篇】2016年，考夫曼写了一篇儿童故事《帕特里克、鲁伯特、斯莱和格斯的原始细胞》，讲述了生物圈中难以描述的生态位创造，后来被制作成动画短片。这个故事可以在这里阅读:考夫曼在这里讲述了2017年的故事:存档在Ghostarchive和Wayback Machine:这里有一个动画版本:存档在Ghostarchive和Wayback Machine。 − − In 2017, exploring the concept that reality consists of both ontologically real "possibles" (res potentia) and ontologically real "actuals" (res extensa), Kauffman co-authored, with Ruth Kastner and Michael Epperson, "Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kastner |first1=Ruth E. |last2=Kauffman |first2=Stuart |last3=Epperson |first3=Michael |date=2019 |chapter=Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously |title=Adventures in Quantumland: Exploring Our Unseen Reality |location=London ; Hackensack, NJ |publisher=World Scientific |pages=223–237 |isbn=978-1-78634-641-4 |oclc=1083673555 |doi=10.1142/9781786346421_0011|arxiv=1709.03595 |s2cid=4882205 }}</ref> − − − 【最终篇】2017年，考夫曼与露丝·卡斯特纳(Ruth Kastner)和迈克尔·艾伯森(Michael Epperson)合著了《认真对待海森堡的潜能》，探讨了现实既包括本体论上真实的“可能性”，也包括本体论上真实的“实际”这一概念。 − Selected articles+ 第199行：
第134行： − + 第228行：
第163行： − {{wikiquote}} 第235行：
第169行： + + + + − [[Category:American atheists]]+ − [[Category:American biophysicists]] − [[Category:American systems scientists]] − [[Category:Complex systems scientists]] − [[Category:Dartmouth College alumni]] − [[Category:Extended evolutionary synthesis]] − [[Category:MacArthur Fellows]] − [[Category:Theoretical biologists]] − [[Category:Writers from Santa Fe, New Mexico]] − [[Category:Santa Fe Institute people]] − [[Category:University of California, San Francisco alumni]]
无编辑摘要
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'''斯图尔特·艾伦·考夫曼 Stuart Alan Kauffman'''，于1939年9月28日出生，美国医学博士、理论生物学家和复杂系统研究员，主要研究地球上生命的起源。他是芝加哥大学、宾夕法尼亚大学和卡尔加里大学的教授。他目前是宾夕法尼亚大学生物化学荣誉退休教授和系统生物学研究所的附属教员。他获得过许多奖项，包括麦克阿瑟奖学金和维也纳奖章。
正如他在1993年出版的《秩序的起源 Origins of Order》一书中所讨论的那样，他最为人所知的观点是，生物系统和有机体的复杂性可能来自自组织和远离平衡的动力学，也可能来自达尔文的自然选择。1967年和1969年，他利用随机布尔网络研究基因调控网络的一般自组织特性，提出细胞类型是基因调控网络中的动态吸引子，细胞分化可以理解为吸引子之间的过渡。最近的证据表明，人类和其他生物体中的细胞类型是吸引物。1971年，他提出受精卵在发育过程中可能无法接触到其基因调控网络中所有的细胞类型吸引子，一些发育中无法接触到的细胞类型可能是癌细胞类型。这暗示了“癌症分化治疗”的可能性。他还提出了聚合物集体自催化集的自组织出现，特别是多肽，作为分子繁殖的起源，这已经得到了实验支持。
== 教育和早期职业 ==
== 教育和早期职业 ==
1960年考夫曼毕业于达特茅斯大学，1963年被牛津大学授予荣誉文学士学位(马歇尔奖学金)，1968年在加州大学旧金山分校获得医学学位(医学博士)。完成实习之后,他搬进了果蝇的发育遗传学,持有任命第一芝加哥大学从1969年到1973年,美国国家癌症研究所从1973年到1975年,然后在宾夕法尼亚大学从1975年到1994年,他在那里的生物化学和生物物理学教授。
== 职业生涯 ==
== 职业生涯 ==
考夫曼之所以为人所知，是因为他与[[圣达菲研究所]](一个致力于研究复杂系统的非营利研究机构)的合作，他在1986年至1997年期间担任该研究所的常驻教员，以及他在生物学各个领域的模型研究工作。这些包括生命起源研究中的自催化集，发育生物学中的基因调控网络，以及进化生物学中的健康景观。与Marc Ballivet合作，考夫曼在组合化学和应用分子进化领域拥有广泛的生物技术专利，1987年在法国首次发布，<ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/EP0229046A1 |country=EP |number=0229046A1 |title=Procédé d'obtention d'ADN, ARN, peptides, polypeptides ou protéines, par une technique de recombinaison d'ADN}}</ref>1989年在英国发布，后来在北美发布。<ref>{{patent|US|5,723,323|"Method of identifying a stochastically-generated peptide, polypeptide, or protein having ligand binding property and compositions thereof"}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/CA1339937C |country=CA |number=1339937C |title=Procedure for obtaining DNA, RNA peptides, polypeptides, or proteins by recombinant DNA techniques}}</ref>
1996年，考夫曼与安永会计师事务所 Ernst and Young合作，成立了位于新墨西哥州圣达菲的营利性公司BiosGroup，该公司将复杂的系统方法应用于商业问题。BiosGroup于2003年初被NuTech Solutions收购。NuTech在2008年被Netezza收购，后来又被IBM收购。<ref>{{cite news|title=NuTech Solutions to Acquire BiosGroup's Software Development Operations|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20030220005174/en/NuTech-Solutions-Acquire-BiosGroups-Software-Development-Operations|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=20 February 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Netezza Corporation Acquires NuTech Solutions|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080515006480/en/Netezza-Corporation-Acquires-NuTech-Solutions|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=15 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=IBM to Acquire Netezza|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/32514.wss|website=IBM News Room|publisher=IBM|access-date=5 July 2015|date=20 September 2010}}</ref>
从2005年到2009年，考夫曼在卡尔加里大学担任生物科学、物理学和天文学的联合职位。他也是卡尔加里大学哲学系的兼职教授。他曾担任iCORE(信息学卓越研究圈)主席和生物复杂性和信息学研究所所长。考夫曼还被邀请帮助在哈佛神学院发起科学与宗教倡议，并于2009年担任客座教授。
2009年1月考夫曼成为坦佩雷科技大学信号处理系芬兰特聘教授(FiDiPro)，该任命于2012年12月结束。FiDiPro研究项目的主题是基于单分子水平的基因表达数据开发基因调控网络的延迟随机模型。
2010年1月考夫曼加入佛蒙特大学，在那里他继续在佛蒙特大学的复杂系统中心工作了两年。<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vermontbiz.com/people/september/stuart-kauffman-complex-systems-pioneer-join-uvm-faculty |title=Stuart Kauffman, complex systems pioneer, to join UVM faculty |work=Vermontbiz.com |publisher=Vermont Business Magazine |date= September 30, 2009 |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref>从2011年初到2013年4月，考夫曼定期为NPR博客13.7“Cosmos and Culture”撰稿，<ref name=NPR>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/people/340090638/stuart-kauffman |title=Stuart Kauffman |work=NPR.org |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref>主题涵盖生命科学、系统生物学、医学、灵性、经济学和法律。<ref name=NPR/> 他也是Edge.org的定期撰稿人。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edge.org/memberbio/stuart_a_kauffman |title=Stuart A. Kauffman |work=Edge.org |publisher=Edge Foundation |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref>
2013年5月，他加入了位于华盛顿州西雅图的系统生物学研究所。在他的妻子去世后，考夫曼与人共同创办了转化医学:伊丽莎白考夫曼研究所。
2014年，考夫曼与萨穆里·尼拉宁 Samuli Niiranen和嘉宝·瓦泰 Gabor Vattay获得了一项关于“平衡状态”<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120071333 |title=Uses of systems with degrees of freedom poised between fully quantum and fully classical states }}</ref>(realm，见下文)的创始专利，这是一种显然是新的“物质状态”，在量子领域和经典领域之间可逆地徘徊。
2015年，他应邀发起了一场关于重新思考联合国经济增长的一般性讨论。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://academicimpact.un.org/content/rethinking-economic-growth/ |title=Rethinking Economic Growth |date=11 May 2015 |website=academicimpact.un.org |access-date=2020-05-26}}</ref>大约在同一时间，他与牛津大学教授Teppo Felin进行了合作研究。<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felin | first1 = Teppo | last2 = Kauffman | first2 = Stuart | last3 = Koppl | first3 = Roger | last4 = Longo | first4 = Giuseppe | year = 2014 | title = Economic opportunity and evolution: Beyond landscapes and bounded rationality | url =https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01415115/file/FelinKauffmanKopplLongoSEJ2014.pdf | journal = Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 269–282 | doi=10.1002/sej.1184}}</ref>
== 适应度地形 ==
== 适应度地形 ==
考夫曼的NK模型定义了一个组合相空间，由长度为<math>N</math>的每个字符串(从给定的字母表中选择)组成。对于这个搜索空间中的每个字符串，定义了一个标量值(称为适应度)。如果在字符串之间定义了距离度量，那么得到的结构就是一个地形。
适应度值是根据模型的具体具体化来定义的，但NK模型的关键特征是给定字符串<math>S</math>的适应度是字符串中每个轨迹<math>S_i</math>的贡献之和:
:F(S) = \sum_i f(S_i),
:F(S) = \sum_i f(S_i),
一般来说，每个基因座的贡献取决于<math>K</math>个其他基因座的值:
:<math>f(S_i) = f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K), \, </math>
:<math>f(S_i) = f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K), \, </math>
其中<math>S^i_j</math>是<math>S_i</math>适合度所依赖的其他位点。
因此，适应度函数<math>f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K)</math>是长度为''K'' + 1的字符串和标量之间的映射，温伯格 Weinberger后来的工作称之为“适应度贡献”。这样的适应度贡献通常是从某些特定的概率分布中随机选择的。
1991年，温伯格发表了一篇详细的案例分析，<ref name="AnalyticOptima">{{cite journal|last=Weinberger|first=Edward|journal=Physical Review A|date=November 15, 1991|volume=44|issue=10|series=10|pages=6399–6413|doi=10.1103/physreva.44.6399|title=Local properties of Kauffman's N-k model: A tunably rugged energy landscape|pmid=9905770|bibcode=1991PhRvA..44.6399W}}</ref>其中<math>1 << k \le N</math>和适应度贡献是随机选择的。他对局部最优解数目的分析估计后来被证明是有缺陷的。然而，Weinberger的分析中包含的数值实验支持了他的分析结果，即弦的期望适合度是正态分布的，其平均值和方差都是近似的。平均值约为<math> \mu + \sigma \sqrt{{2 \ln (k+1)} \over {k+1}}</math> ，方差约为<math> {{(k+1)\sigma^2} \over {N[k+1 + 2(k+2)\ln(k+1)]}}</math>。
== 表彰与奖项 ==
== 表彰与奖项 ==
考夫曼在1987年至1992年期间举办了麦克阿瑟奖学金。他还获得卢万大学科学荣誉学位(1997年);他在1973年获得了诺伯特·维也纳控制论纪念奖金奖，1990年获得了罗马意大利猞猁之眼国家科学院（dei Lincei）金奖，2001年获得了特罗（Trotter）信息和复杂性奖，2013年获得了赫伯特 · 西蒙（Herbert Simon）复杂系统奖。他于2009年成为加拿大皇家学会会员。
== 工作 ==
== 工作 ==
考夫曼最著名的论点是，生物系统和有机体的复杂性可能来自自组织和远离平衡的动力学，也可能来自达尔文的自然选择，在进化生物学的三个领域，即种群动力学、分子进化和形态发生。在分子生物学方面，考夫曼的结构主义方法因忽视了能量在驱动细胞生化反应中的作用而受到批评，这种作用可以被称为自催化，但不是简单的自组织。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fox |first=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–2699 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref>一些在考夫曼领域工作的生物学家和物理学家对他关于自组织和进化的观点提出了质疑。一个恰当的例子是2001年出版的《生物系统中的自组织 Self-Organization in Biological Systems》一书中的一些评论。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Camazine |first1=Scott |last2=Deneubourg |first2=Jean-Louis |last3=Franks |first3=Nigel R. |last4=Sneyd |first4=James |last5=Theraulaz |first5=Guy |last6=Bonabeau |first6=Eric |date=2001 |title=Self-Organization in Biological Systems |series=Princeton Studies in Complexity |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 88–89], [https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283] |doi=10.2307/j.ctvzxx9tx |isbn=0691012113 |oclc=44876868 |jstor=j.ctvzxx9tx}}</ref>Roger Sansom在2011年出版的《天才基因:基因调控网络如何进化到控制发展 Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development》一书，是对考夫曼关于基因调控网络的自组织模型的扩展批评。<ref>{{cite book |last=Sansom |first=Roger |date=2011 |title=Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve To Control Development |series=Life and Mind: Philosophical Issues in Biology and Psychology |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=9780262195812 |oclc=694600461 |doi=10.7551/mitpress/9780262195812.001.0001}} See also: {{cite journal |last=Wray |first=Gregory A. |date=December 2012 |title=Adaptation and Gene Networks: ''Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development'' [book review] |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1084–1085 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.12.10 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
考夫曼借鉴物理学中的自旋玻璃模型，发明了“N-K”适应性地形，并在生物学和经济学中得到了应用。在相关的工作中，考夫曼和他的同事研究了经济系统中的次批判、批判和超实践行为。
考夫曼的工作将他的生物学发现转化为身心问题和神经科学问题，提出了一个无限期徘徊在量子一致性和古典主义之间的新“平衡领域”的属性。他在他的论文《回答笛卡尔:超越图灵 Answering Descartes: beyond Turing》中发表了这一主题。与Giuseppe Longo和Maël Montévil，他写道(2012年1月)《生物圈进化中没有必然规律，但存在使能关系 No Entailing Laws, But Enablement in the Evolution of the Biosphere》，认为进化不像物理学那样是“必然规律”。
考夫曼的作品发表在Physics ArXiv上，包括《超越僵局:身心、量子力学、自由意志、可能的泛心主义、量子谜的可能解决方案 Beyond the Stalemate: Mind/Body, Quantum Mechanics, Free Will, Possible Panpsychism, Possible Solution to the Quantum Enigma》(2014年10月)和《生命起源的量子临界性 Quantum Criticality at the Origin of Life》(2015年2月)。
考夫曼通过引入相邻可能的数学，为累积技术进化这一新兴领域做出了贡献。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tria |first1=F. |last2=Loreto |first2=V. |last3=Servedio |first3=V. D. P. |last4=Strogatz |first4=S. H. |date=July 2014 |title=The dynamics of correlated novelties |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=4 |pages=5890 |doi=10.1038/srep05890 |pmid=25080941 |pmc=5376195|arxiv=1310.1953 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4E5890T }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monechi |first1=Bernardo |last2=Ruiz-Serrano |first2=Álvaro |last3=Tria |first3=Francesca |last4=Loreto |first4=Vittorio |date=June 2017 |title=Waves of novelties in the expansion into the adjacent possible |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=e0179303 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179303 |pmid=28594909|pmc=5464662 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279303M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
他发表了350多篇文章和6本书:《秩序的起源 The Origins of Order》(1993年)、《在宇宙中安家 At Home in the Universe》(1995年)、《调查 Investigations》(2000年)、《重新创造神圣 Reinventing the Sacred》(2008年)、《创造性宇宙中的人类 Humanity in a Creative Universe》(2016年)和《超越物理学的世界 A World Beyond Physics》(2019年)。
Kauffman has contributed to the emerging field of cumulative technological evolution by introducing a mathematics of the ''adjacent possible''.
In 2016, Kauffman wrote a children's story, "Patrick, Rupert, Sly & Gus Protocells", a narrative about unprestatable niche creation in the biosphere, which was later produced as a short animated video.
【最终篇】2016年，考夫曼写了一篇儿童故事《帕特里克、鲁伯特、斯莱和格斯的原始细胞》，讲述了生物圈中难以描述的生态位创造，后来被制作成动画短片。<ref>这个故事可以在这里阅读: {{cite web |url=https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527002318/https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-date=2020-05-27 |url-status=live |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick S., Rupert R., Sly S., and Gus G. Protocells in Their Very Early Years |date=16 August 2016}} Kauffman narrates the story in 2017 here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/mxALd-rqSBc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170312233945/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc&feature=youtu.be Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick, Rupert, Sly, and Gus |website=[[YouTube]] |date=10 March 2017 |access-date=2020-05-26}}{{cbignore}} An animated version is here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/qKXt7zdLVR4 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20201002012309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4&t=663s Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4|title=The origins of life and its continuing wonder |website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=Science Animated |date=24 August 2020 |quote=Stuart Kauffman explains how life evolved from its earlier origins some 3,700 million years ago through the story of four protocells—Patrick, Rupert, Sly and Gus. He explains why our knowledge of the origins and early evolution of life can greatly help us understand our true place in the world.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>:考夫曼在这里讲述了2017年的故事:存档在Ghostarchive和Wayback Machine:这里有一个动画版本:存档在Ghostarchive和Wayback Machine。
2017年，考夫曼与露丝·卡斯特纳 Ruth Kastner和迈克尔·艾伯森 Michael Epperson合著了《认真对待海森堡的潜能 Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously》，探讨了现实既包括本体论上真实的“可能性”，也包括本体论上真实的“实际”这一概念。<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kastner |first1=Ruth E. |last2=Kauffman |first2=Stuart |last3=Epperson |first3=Michael |date=2019 |chapter=Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously |title=Adventures in Quantumland: Exploring Our Unseen Reality |location=London ; Hackensack, NJ |publisher=World Scientific |pages=223–237 |isbn=978-1-78634-641-4 |oclc=1083673555 |doi=10.1142/9781786346421_0011|arxiv=1709.03595 |s2cid=4882205 }}</ref>
== 出版物 ==
== 出版物 ==
所选文章
*{{cite journal |last1=Kauffman |first1=S. A. |last2=McCulloch |first2=W. S. |year=1967 |title=Random Nets of Formal Genes. Quarterly Progress Report 34 |publisher=Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kauffman |first1=S. A. |last2=McCulloch |first2=W. S. |year=1967 |title=Random Nets of Formal Genes. Quarterly Progress Report 34 |publisher=Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology }}
*{{cite journal |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Metabolic stability and epigenesis in randomly constructed genetic nets |journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=437–467 |date=1969 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(69)90015-0 |pmid=5803332}}
*{{cite journal |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Metabolic stability and epigenesis in randomly constructed genetic nets |journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=437–467 |date=1969 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(69)90015-0 |pmid=5803332}}
;Books
;书籍
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=The Origins of Order: Self Organization and Selection in Evolution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-507951-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=The Origins of Order: Self Organization and Selection in Evolution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-507951-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0195111309}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0195111309}}
== 外部链接 ==
== 外部链接 ==
* {{cite news |url=https://www.salon.com/2008/11/19/stuart_kauffman/ |title=God Enough |first=Steve |last=Paulson |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |date=November 9, 2008 |access-date=2015-04-28}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.salon.com/2008/11/19/stuart_kauffman/ |title=God Enough |first=Steve |last=Paulson |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |date=November 9, 2008 |access-date=2015-04-28}}
* {{cite web |url=https://vimeo.com/ondemand/stuartkauffman |title=Thinker of Untold Dreams: A Portrait of Stuart Kauffman |website=[[Vimeo]]}}
* {{cite web |url=https://vimeo.com/ondemand/stuartkauffman |title=Thinker of Untold Dreams: A Portrait of Stuart Kauffman |website=[[Vimeo]]}}
2019年1月28日，在新英格兰复杂系统研究所的一次演讲中，我们发现了一个叫做 Ghostarchive 和时光机的存档文件。
2019年1月28日，在新英格兰复杂系统研究所的一次演讲中，我们发现了一个叫做 Ghostarchive 和时光机的存档文件。
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