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Moved page from wikipedia:en:System (history)
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。
{{other uses}}
{{for|the set of rules that govern structure or behavior of people|Social system}}
{{short description|Group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole}}
{{lead too short|date=October 2019}}
A '''system''' is a group of [[Interaction|interacting]] or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.<ref name="merriam-webster-system">ងថហក
A system is a group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.<ref name="merriam-webster-system">ងថហក
系统是一组相互作用或相互关联的实体，形成一个统一的整体
{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system|title=Definition of ''system''|website=Merriam-Webster|location=Springfield, MA, USA|accessdate=2019-01-16}}
</ref> A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of [[systems theory]].
</ref> A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory.
一个系统是由它的空间和时间边界来描述的，被它的环境所包围和影响，被它的结构和目的所描述，并在它的功能中表现出来。系统是系统理论研究的对象。
==Etymology==
The term "system" comes from the [[Latin]] word ''systēma'', in turn from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|σύστημα}} ''systēma'': "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".<ref>
The term "system" comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek systēma: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".<ref>
“系统”一词来源于拉丁语 syst ma，反过来源于希腊语 syst ma: “由几个部分或成员、系统组成的整体概念” ，文学“组成”。< ref >
[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma "σύστημα"], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''[[A Greek–English Lexicon]]'', on Perseus Digits Library.
[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma "σύστημα"], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digits Library.
希腊语-英语词典》 ， http://www.Perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3dsu%2fsthma 亨利·乔治·李道尔。
</ref>
</ref>
</ref >
==History==
According to [[Marshall McLuhan]],
According to Marshall McLuhan,
根据《马素·麦克鲁汉道:
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
< 封锁报价 >
"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967">
"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967">
“ System”的意思是“可以看的东西”。你必须有一个非常高的视觉梯度有系统性。但在哲学中，在笛卡尔之前，没有“体系”。柏拉图没有“体系”。亚里士多德没有“系统” . < ref name ="marshall1967">
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
马素·麦克鲁汉: McLuhan: Hot & Cool。埃德。作者: Gerald Emanuel Stearn。由纽约新美国图书馆出版，1967年，第288页。 </ref > < ref >
{{cite book
{{cite book
{引用书
| last1 = McLuhan
| last1 = McLuhan
1 = McLuhan
| first1 = Marshall
| first1 = Marshall
1 = Marshall
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
1 = 马素·麦克鲁汉
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| chapter = 4: The Hot and Cool Interview
4: The Hot and Cool Interview
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-last = Moos
1-last = Moos
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-link =
| editor1-link =
1-link =
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
媒体研究: 技术、艺术与传播: 艺术、理论与文化中的批判声音
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hzr_agaaqbaj
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
艺术、理论和文化中的批判声音
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2014
| date = 2014
2014年
| page = 74
| page = 74
74
| isbn = 9781134393145
| isbn = 9781134393145
9781134393145
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
2015-05-06
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
‘ System’意思是‘值得一看的东西’。你必须有一个非常高的视觉梯度有系统性。在笛卡尔之前的哲学中，没有“体系”柏拉图没有“体系”亚里士多德没有“体系”
}}
}}
}}
</ref>
</ref>
</ref >
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote >
In the 19th century the French physicist [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], who studied [[thermodynamics]], pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the [[natural science]]s. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'' (typically a body of water vapor) in [[steam engine]]s, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] generalized this picture to include the concept of the [[environment (systems)|surroundings]] and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.
In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.
19世纪，研究热力学的法国物理学家尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺开创了自然科学中“系统”概念的发展。1824年，他研究了被他称为蒸汽机工作物质(通常是水蒸气)的系统，考虑到当加热时系统做功的能力。工作物质可以与锅炉、冷水库(冷水流)或活塞(工作物体通过推动活塞来工作)接触。1850年，德国物理学家鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯(Rudolf Clausius)将这个图景概括为包括环境的概念，并开始使用术语“工作体”来指代这个系统。
The biologist [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] became one of the pioneers of the [[Systems theory|general systems theory]]. In 1945 he introduced ''models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.''<ref name="Bertalanfy1945">1945, ''Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre,'' Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.</ref>
The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.
生物学家卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非成为一般系统理论的先驱之一。1945年，他提出了适用于广义系统或其子类的模型、原理和法则，不论它们的特殊类型、组成要素的性质以及它们之间的关系或力。
[[Norbert Wiener]] and [[William Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a ''system''.<ref name="Wiener1948">
Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.<ref name="Wiener1948">
诺伯特 · 维纳和罗斯 · 阿什比是将数学应用于系统研究的先驱，他们对系统的概念进行了重大的发展。< ref name ="wiener1948">
1948, ''Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.'' Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1948, Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1948，《控制论: 动物与机器的控制与交流》。法国，巴黎: 赫尔曼与塞尔，剑桥，麻省: 麻省理工出版社，剑桥，麻省理工出版社。
</ref><ref name="Ashby1950">
</ref><ref name="Ashby1950">
</ref > < ref name ="ashby1950">
1956. ''[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html An Introduction to Cybernetics]'', Chapman & Hall.
1956. [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html An Introduction to Cybernetics], Chapman & Hall.
1956.控制论导论》 ，查普曼 http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ashbbook.html 出版社。
</ref>
</ref>
</ref >
In the 1980s [[John Henry Holland]], [[Murray Gell-Mann]] and others coined the term "[[complex adaptive system]]" at the interdisciplinary [[Santa Fe Institute]].
In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.
在20世纪80年代，John Henry Holland，默里·盖尔曼和其他人在跨学科的圣菲研究所中创造了一个术语: 复杂适应性系统。
==Concepts==
;Environment and boundaries
Environment and boundaries
环境与界限
:[[Systems theory]] views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its [[Boundary (topology)|boundary]]; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the [[environment (systems)|environment]]. One can make simplified representations ([[Scientific modelling|models]]) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the [[structure]] and [[behavior]] of the system.
Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment. One can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.
系统论认为世界是一个由相互连接的部分组成的复杂系统。一种方法是通过定义系统的边界来确定系统的范围; 这意味着选择哪些实体位于系统内部，哪些实体位于环境的外部。人们可以对系统进行简化表示(模型) ，以便理解它，并预测或影响其未来的行为。这些模型可以定义系统的结构和行为。
;Natural and human-made systems
Natural and human-made systems
自然和人造系统
:There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.
There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.
有自然系统和人造系统。自然系统可能没有明显的目标，但是它们的行为可以被观察者解释为有目的的。人造系统的目的各不相同，这些目的是通过系统执行或与系统一起执行的某些行动来实现的。一个系统的各个部分必须相互关联; 它们必须“作为一个连贯的实体运作”ーー否则它们将成为两个或两个以上不同的系统。
[[File:OpenSystemRepresentation.svg|thumb|252px|''Open systems'' have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.]]
Open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.
开放系统有输入和输出流，代表物质、能量或信息与其周围环境的交换。
;Theoretical framework
Theoretical framework
理论框架
:Most systems are [[Open system (thermodynamics)|open systems]], exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a [[coffeemaker]], or [[Earth]]. A [[closed system]] exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project [[Biosphere 2]]. An [[isolated system]] exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the [[Universe]].
Most systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or Earth. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project Biosphere 2. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe.
大多数系统是开放系统，与周围环境交换物质和能量，比如汽车、咖啡机或地球。一个封闭的系统与它的环境交换能量，但不是物质; 就像一台计算机或生物圈2号项目。一个孤立的系统与它的环境既不交换物质也不交换能量。这种系统的一个理论例子是宇宙。
;Process and transformation process
Process and transformation process
过程和转换过程
:An [[open system (systems theory)|open system]] can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a [[black box]] that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.
An open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.
一个开放系统也可以被看作是一个有界的转换过程，也就是说，一个黑盒子，它是一个将输入转换为输出的过程或过程的集合。投入被消耗，产出被生产。这里输入和输出的概念非常广泛。例如，一艘客轮的输出就是人们从出发地到达目的地的运动。
;System model
System model
系统模型
:A system comprises [[view model|multiple views]]. Man-made systems may have such views as [[concept]], [[systems analysis|analysis]], [[Systems design|design]], [[implementation]], deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A [[system model]] is required to describe and represent all these views.
A system comprises multiple views. Man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views.
一个系统包含多个视图。人造系统可能具有如下视图: 概念、分析、设计、实现、部署、结构、行为、输入数据和输出数据视图。需要一个系统模型来描述和表示所有这些视图。
;Systems architecture
Systems architecture
系统架构
:A [[systems architecture]], using one single integrated model for the description of [[view model|multiple views]], is a kind of [[system model]].
A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.
系统体系结构是用一个单一的集成模型来描述多个视图，是一种系统模型。
===Subsystem===
A ''subsystem'' is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe ''Job Entry Subsystem'' family ([[JES1]], [[JES2]], [[JES3]], and their [[Houston Automatic Spooling Priority|HASP]]/[[Attached Support Processor|ASP]] predecessors) are examples. The main ''elements'' they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.
A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.
子系统是一组元素，它是一个系统本身，也是一个更大系统的组成部分。IBM 大型机作业输入子系统系列(JES1、 JES2、 JES3及其 HASP/ASP 前身)就是例子。它们共有的主要元素是处理输入、调度、假脱机和输出的组件; 它们还具有与本地和远程操作员交互的能力。
A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system.<ref>IBM's definition @ http://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i5_54/rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm</ref> The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).<ref>{{Cite book|title=European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128|last=|first=|publisher=CENELEC|year=2011|isbn=|location=Brussels, Belgium|pages=Table A.11 – Data Préparation Techniques (8.4)}}</ref>
A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).
子系统描述是一个系统对象，它包含定义由系统控制的操作环境特征的信息。执行数据测试是为了验证各个子系统配置数据的正确性(例如:。MA 的长度，静态速度剖面，...) ，他们是相关的一个单一的子系统，以测试其具体应用(SA)。
==Analysis==
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] and [[Qualitative research|qualitatively]]. For example, in an analysis of urban [[System dynamics|systems dynamics]], A .W. Steiss<ref>Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</ref> defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]]<ref>Bailey, 1994.</ref> defined systems in terms of [[conceptual system|conceptual]], [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], and abstract systems, either [[Isolated system|isolated]], [[Closed system|closed]], or [[Open system (systems theory)|open]]. [[Walter F. Buckley]]<ref>Buckley, 1967.</ref> defined systems in sociology in terms of [[Mechanics|mechanical]], [[organic (model)|organic]], and [[process modeling|process]] models. [[Bela H. Banathy]]<ref>Banathy, 1997.</ref> cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
有许多类型的系统，可以进行定量和定性分析。例如，在城市系统动力学分析中，a。斯泰斯定义了5个交叉系统，包括物质系统和行为系统。对于受系统理论影响的社会学模型，Kenneth d. Bailey 用概念化、具体化和抽象化的系统来定义系统，无论是孤立的、封闭的还是开放的。巴克利在社会学中将系统定义为机械的、有机的和过程模型。贝拉 · h · 班纳西警告说，对于任何对一个系统的调查来说，了解它的类型是至关重要的，并定义了“自然”和“设计” ，即人工的系统。
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, [[living systems theory|living systems]], the [[solar system]], [[Galaxy|galaxies]], and the [[Universe]], while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = How can a system select goals, etc.? Most systems are not self-aware or self describing. What does concentrated or disturbed mean in this context?}}
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.
重要的是不要混淆这些抽象的定义。例如，自然系统包括亚原子系统、生命系统、太阳系统、星系和宇宙，而人造系统包括人造物理结构、自然系统和人造系统的混合体以及概念知识。强调组织和功能的人的因素及其相关的抽象系统和表现形式。区分不同系统的一个主要考虑因素是确定系统在选择其目的、目标、方法、工具等方面有多大的自由度。以及选择分布或集中的自由程度。
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = Needs clearer explanation. e.g., what are the fundamental assumptions involved in a hammer, or a refrigerator. What makes a man-made dam system different from a beaver dam in this context?}}{{citation needed|date = June 2019}} These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in [[geometry]] this is very evident in the postulation of [[theorem]]s and extrapolation of proofs from them.
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.
人工系统天生就有一个重大缺陷: 它们必须以一个或多个基本假设为前提，而这些基本假设又是额外知识的基础。这些基本假设本质上并不是有害的，但是它们必须被定义为真，如果它们实际上是假的，那么这个系统在结构上并不像假设的那样是完整的。例如，在几何学中，这在定理的假设和从定理中证明的外推中是非常明显的。
[[George J. Klir]]<ref>Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72</ref> maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, [[The Real|real]], and [[conceptual system|conceptual]] [[physical systems]], bounded and [[unbounded system]]s, discrete to continuous, pulse to [[hybrid system]]s, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and [[open system (systems theory)|open systems]]. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made<ref>Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.</ref> between ''hard'' systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as [[systems engineering]], operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and ''soft'' systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by [[Peter Checkland]] and [[Brian Wilson (systems scientist)|Brian Wilson]] through [[Soft systems methodology|Soft Systems Methodology]] (SSM) involving methods such as [[action research]] and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
George j. Klir 认为没有“完全和完美的分类” ，并将系统定义为抽象的、真实的和概念性的物理系统、有界的和无界的系统、离散到连续的系统、脉冲到混合系统等。系统与其环境之间的交互可分为相对封闭和开放的系统。一个绝对封闭的系统似乎不太可能存在，即使存在，也不太可能为人所知。在硬系统和软系统之间也有重要的区别，硬系统在自然界是技术性的，可以适应诸如系统工程、运筹学和定量系统分析等方法，软系统涉及人和组织，通常与 Peter Checkland 和 Brian Wilson 通过软体系统方法论开发的概念相关，包括诸如行动研究和强调参与式设计等方法。在硬系统可能被认为更“科学”的地方，它们之间的区别往往是难以捉摸的。
===Cultural system===
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of [[culture]]. While a cultural system is quite different from a [[social system]], sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the [[Social order|problem of order]].
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.
文化系统可以定义为不同文化要素之间的相互作用。虽然文化系统与社会系统大不相同，但有时两者合在一起被称为”社会文化系统”。社会科学的一个主要关注点是秩序问题。
===Economic system===
{{Main|Economic system}}
An economic system is a mechanism ([[social institution]]) which deals with the [[Economic production|production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] in a particular [[society]]. The economic system is composed of [[person|people]], [[institutions]] and their relationships to resources, such as the [[Convention (norm)|convention]] of [[property]]. It addresses the problems of [[economics]], like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
经济制度是一种机制(社会制度) ，它处理一个特定社会中商品和服务的生产、分配和消费。经济体系由人、制度及其与资源的关系组成，如财产制度。它解决了经济问题，比如资源的分配和稀缺。
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the [[Neorealism (international relations)|neorealist school.]] This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the [[Constructivism (international relations)|constructivist school]], which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the [[Institutional liberalism|liberal institutionalist]] school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
几位国际关系学者，尤其是新现实主义学派的学者，从系统的角度描述和分析了相互作用国家的国际领域。然而，这种国际分析的系统模式受到其他国际关系思想流派的挑战，其中最显著的是建构主义学派，该学派认为，过分关注系统和结构可能掩盖个人在社会互动中的作用。以制度为基础的国际关系模式也是自由制度主义思想学派对国际领域的看法的基础，该学派更加强调由规则和相互作用治理，特别是经济治理所产生的制度。
==Application of the system concept==
Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.
Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.
系统建模是工程学和社会科学的基本原理。该系统是所关注实体的代表。因此，对系统上下文的包含或排除取决于建模者的意图。
No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
一个系统的任何模型都不会包括真正关注系统的所有特征，一个系统的任何模型都不必包括属于真正关注系统的所有实体。
===In information and computer science===
In [[computer science]] and [[information science]], '''system''' is a hardware system, [[software system]], or combination, which has [[Component (UML)|components]] as its structure and observable [[inter-process communication]]s as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with [[Roman numerals]], and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]] is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).
In computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).
在计算机科学和信息科学中，系统是以组件为结构，以可观察的进程间通信为行为的硬件系统、软件系统或组合。再举一个例子来说明: 有计算系统，如罗马数字，和各种系统归档文件，或目录，以及各种图书馆系统，其中杜威十进制图书分类法图书馆就是一个例子。这仍然符合连接在一起的组件的定义(在这种情况下是为了方便信息流)。
System can also refer to a framework, aka [[platform (computing)|platform]], be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect [[Statement (computer science)|statement]] or [[Data definition language|data definition]] <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://glossar.german-testing-board.info/|title=ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref>
System can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition
系统也可以指一个框架，也就是平台，无论是软件还是硬件，设计用来允许软件程序运行。组件或系统中的缺陷可能导致组件本身或整个系统无法执行其所需功能，例如不正确的语句或数据定义
===In engineering and physics===
In [[engineering]] and [[physics]], a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a [[thermodynamic system]] is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. [[Systems engineering]] is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected [[result]] is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.<ref name=":0" />
In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.
在工程学和物理学中，物理系统是正在研究的宇宙的一部分(热力学系统就是一个主要的例子)。工程学还有一个系统的概念，涉及到复杂项目的所有部分和部分之间的交互。系统工程是工程学的一个分支，研究如何规划、设计、实现、构建和维护这种类型的系统。预期的结果是指在特定条件下，部件或系统的规范或其他来源所预测的行为。
===In social and cognitive sciences and management research===
Social and [[cognitive science]]s recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.
Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.
社会和认知科学认可人类模型和人类社会中的系统。它们包括人类的大脑功能和心理过程，以及规范伦理学系统和社会/文化行为模式。
In [[management science]], [[operations research]] and [[organizational development]] (OD), human organizations are viewed as '''systems''' (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex [[business processes]] ([[organizational behavior]]s) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist [[Peter Senge]] developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book ''The Fifth Discipline''.
In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline.
在管理科学、运筹学和组织发展学中，人类组织被看作是子系统或系统集合体等相互作用的组成部分的系统(概念系统) ，是众多复杂业务流程(组织行为)和组织结构的载体。组织发展理论家彼得 · 森吉在他的《第五纪律》一书中提出了组织作为系统的概念。
[[Systems thinking]] is a style of thinking/[[reasoning]] and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can ''think globally while acting locally''. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.
Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.
系统思考是一种思考/推理和解决问题的方式。它从识别给定问题中的系统属性开始。它可以是一种领导能力。有些人可以放眼全球，同时在当地采取行动。这些人考虑他们的决定对大系统的其他部分的潜在后果。这也是心理学系统辅导的基础。
[[Organizational studies|Organizational theorists]] such as [[Margaret Wheatley]] have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as [[quantum physics]], [[chaos theory]], and the [[self-organizing systems|self-organization of systems]].
Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.
组织理论家，如 Margaret Wheatley，也描述了组织系统在新的隐喻背景下的工作，如量子物理学，混沌理论，系统的自我组织。
===Pure logical systems===
There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by [[Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton]]. Another example is [[George Boole]]'s Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including [[Carl Jung]] and [[Sigmund Freud]] have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a [[corollary]] such as a [[theorem]]. Logic has been applied to categories such as [[taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]], [[ontology]], [[educational assessment|assessment]], and [[hierarchies]].
There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Another example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. Logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.
还有一种东西叫做逻辑系统。最明显的例子就是莱布尼茨和艾萨克 · 牛顿同时开发的微积分。另一个例子是 George Boole 的布尔运算符。其他的例子特别与哲学、生物学或认知科学有关。马斯洛的需求层次理论通过使用纯逻辑将心理学应用于生物学。许多心理学家，包括卡尔 · 荣格和西格蒙德 · 弗洛伊德，已经开发出一套系统，可以逻辑地组织心理学领域，比如人格、动机、智力和欲望。这些领域通常由一般范畴组成，这些范畴遵循一个推论，如定理。逻辑被应用于分类、本体、评估和层次结构等类别。
===Applied to strategic thinking===
In 1988, military strategist, [[John A. Warden III]] introduced the [[Warden's Five Rings|Five Ring System]] model in his book, ''The Air Campaign'', contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the [[First Gulf War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |title=The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat |publisher=National Defense University Press |location=Washington, D.C. |date=1988 |isbn=978-1-58348-100-4 |authorlink=John A. Warden III}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=September 1995
In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced the Five Ring System model in his book, The Air Campaign, contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=September 1995
1988年，军事战略家约翰 a。华登三世在他的书《空军战役》中介绍了五环系统模型，认为任何复杂的系统都可以分解成五个同心环。每个环节ーー领导力、流程、基础设施、人口和行动单位ーー都可以用来隔离任何需要变革的系统的关键元素。在第一次海湾战争中，空军计划人员有效地使用了该模型。< ref > { cite book | last = Warden | first = John a. III | date = September 1995
|chapter=Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century
|chapter=Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century
| 第四章: 21世纪的空气理论
|chapter-url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html |accessdate=December 26, 2008 |title=Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues |chapter-format=in ''Air and Space Power Journal''
|chapter-url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html |accessdate=December 26, 2008 |title=Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues |chapter-format=in Air and Space Power Journal
26,2008 | title = 未来的战场: 21世纪的战争问题 | chapter-format = in Air and Space Power Journal. | chapter-url = http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html | accessdate = December 26,2008 | title = 未来的战场: 21世纪的战争问题 | chapter-format = in Air and Space Power Journal
|publisher =United States Air Force}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=1995 |title=Enemy as a System |journal=Airpower Journal |volume=Spring |issue=9 |pages=40–55|url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj95/spr95_files/warden.htm |accessdate=2009-03-25 }}</ref> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Leland A. |author2=Warden, John A. |title=Winning in FastTime: Harness the Competitive Advantage of Prometheus in Business and in Life |publisher=GEO Group Press |location=Newport Beach, CA |date=2001 |isbn=0-9712697-1-8 }}</ref>
|publisher =United States Air Force}}</ref> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.
20世纪90年代末，华登将他的模型应用于商业战略。
==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
;Examples of systems
Examples of systems
系统的例子
* [[Physical system]]
* [[Conceptual system]]
* [[Complex system]]
* [[Formal system]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Information system]]
* [[Meta-system]]
* [[Solar System]]
* [[Human anatomy|Systems in human anatomy]]
* [[Market (economics)|Market]]
* [[Thermodynamic system]]s
{{Col-break}}
{{Portal|Systems science}}
;Related topics
Related topics
相关话题
* [[Glossary of systems theory]]
* [[Complexity theory and organizations]]
* [[Black box]]
* [[System of systems]] ([[System of systems engineering|engineering]])
* [[Systems art]]
{{col-end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
{ columns-list | colwidth = 30em |
* Alexander Backlund (2000). "[https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/03684920010322055 The definition of system]". In: ''Kybernetes'' Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp. 444–451.
* [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994). ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis''. New York: State of New York Press.
* [[Bela H. Banathy]] (1997). [http://www.newciv.org/ISSS_Primer/asem04bb.html "A Taste of Systemics"], ISSS The Primer Project.
* [[Walter F. Buckley]] (1967). '' Sociology and Modern Systems Theory'', New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
* [[Peter Checkland]] (1997). ''Systems Thinking, Systems Practice''. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
* [[Michel Crozier]], Erhard Friedberg (1981). ''Actors and Systems'', Chicago University Press.
* [[Robert L. Flood]] (1999). ''[http://www.msbkwt.com/joomla/images/FILES2018-19/Library/E-Books/Rethinking-The-Fifth-Discipline.pdf Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the unknowable]''. London: Routledge.
* [[George J. Klir]] (1969). Approach to General Systems Theory, 1969.
* [[Brian Wilson (systems scientist)|Brian Wilson]] (1980). ''Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications'', John Wiley
* Brian Wilson (2001). ''Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model building and its contribution'', J.H.Wiley.
* Beynon-Davies P. (2009). ''Business Information + Systems''. Palgrave, Basingstoke. {{ISBN|978-0-230-20368-6}}
}}
}}
}}
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{{Wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/4b.html ''Definitions of Systems and Models''] by Michael Pidwirny, 1999–2007.
* [http://www.muellerscience.com/SPEZIALITAETEN/System/Lit.System%281556-2001%29.htm ''Publications with the title "System" (1600–2008)] by Roland Müller.
* [http://www.muellerscience.com/SPEZIALITAETEN/System/System_Definitionen.htm ''Definitionen von "System" (1572–2002)''] by Roland Müller, (most in German).
{{Systems engineering}}
{{Systems}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Systems|*]]
*
*
<noinclude>
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:System]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[系统/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
[[Category:待整理页面]]
{{other uses}}
{{for|the set of rules that govern structure or behavior of people|Social system}}
{{short description|Group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole}}
{{lead too short|date=October 2019}}
A '''system''' is a group of [[Interaction|interacting]] or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.<ref name="merriam-webster-system">ងថហក
A system is a group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.<ref name="merriam-webster-system">ងថហក
系统是一组相互作用或相互关联的实体，形成一个统一的整体
{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system|title=Definition of ''system''|website=Merriam-Webster|location=Springfield, MA, USA|accessdate=2019-01-16}}
</ref> A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of [[systems theory]].
</ref> A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory.
一个系统是由它的空间和时间边界来描述的，被它的环境所包围和影响，被它的结构和目的所描述，并在它的功能中表现出来。系统是系统理论研究的对象。
==Etymology==
The term "system" comes from the [[Latin]] word ''systēma'', in turn from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|σύστημα}} ''systēma'': "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".<ref>
The term "system" comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek systēma: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".<ref>
“系统”一词来源于拉丁语 syst ma，反过来源于希腊语 syst ma: “由几个部分或成员、系统组成的整体概念” ，文学“组成”。< ref >
[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma "σύστημα"], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''[[A Greek–English Lexicon]]'', on Perseus Digits Library.
[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma "σύστημα"], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digits Library.
希腊语-英语词典》 ， http://www.Perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3dsu%2fsthma 亨利·乔治·李道尔。
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</ref >
==History==
According to [[Marshall McLuhan]],
According to Marshall McLuhan,
根据《马素·麦克鲁汉道:
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
< 封锁报价 >
"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967">
"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967">
“ System”的意思是“可以看的东西”。你必须有一个非常高的视觉梯度有系统性。但在哲学中，在笛卡尔之前，没有“体系”。柏拉图没有“体系”。亚里士多德没有“系统” . < ref name ="marshall1967">
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
马素·麦克鲁汉: McLuhan: Hot & Cool。埃德。作者: Gerald Emanuel Stearn。由纽约新美国图书馆出版，1967年，第288页。 </ref > < ref >
{{cite book
{{cite book
{引用书
| last1 = McLuhan
| last1 = McLuhan
1 = McLuhan
| first1 = Marshall
| first1 = Marshall
1 = Marshall
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
1 = 马素·麦克鲁汉
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| chapter = 4: The Hot and Cool Interview
4: The Hot and Cool Interview
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-last = Moos
1-last = Moos
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
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| editor1-link =
1-link =
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
媒体研究: 技术、艺术与传播: 艺术、理论与文化中的批判声音
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hzr_agaaqbaj
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
艺术、理论和文化中的批判声音
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2014
| date = 2014
2014年
| page = 74
| page = 74
74
| isbn = 9781134393145
| isbn = 9781134393145
9781134393145
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
2015-05-06
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
‘ System’意思是‘值得一看的东西’。你必须有一个非常高的视觉梯度有系统性。在笛卡尔之前的哲学中，没有“体系”柏拉图没有“体系”亚里士多德没有“体系”
}}
}}
}}
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</ref >
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote >
In the 19th century the French physicist [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], who studied [[thermodynamics]], pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the [[natural science]]s. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'' (typically a body of water vapor) in [[steam engine]]s, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] generalized this picture to include the concept of the [[environment (systems)|surroundings]] and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.
In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.
19世纪，研究热力学的法国物理学家尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺开创了自然科学中“系统”概念的发展。1824年，他研究了被他称为蒸汽机工作物质(通常是水蒸气)的系统，考虑到当加热时系统做功的能力。工作物质可以与锅炉、冷水库(冷水流)或活塞(工作物体通过推动活塞来工作)接触。1850年，德国物理学家鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯(Rudolf Clausius)将这个图景概括为包括环境的概念，并开始使用术语“工作体”来指代这个系统。
The biologist [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] became one of the pioneers of the [[Systems theory|general systems theory]]. In 1945 he introduced ''models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.''<ref name="Bertalanfy1945">1945, ''Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre,'' Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.</ref>
The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.
生物学家卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非成为一般系统理论的先驱之一。1945年，他提出了适用于广义系统或其子类的模型、原理和法则，不论它们的特殊类型、组成要素的性质以及它们之间的关系或力。
[[Norbert Wiener]] and [[William Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a ''system''.<ref name="Wiener1948">
Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.<ref name="Wiener1948">
诺伯特 · 维纳和罗斯 · 阿什比是将数学应用于系统研究的先驱，他们对系统的概念进行了重大的发展。< ref name ="wiener1948">
1948, ''Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.'' Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1948, Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1948，《控制论: 动物与机器的控制与交流》。法国，巴黎: 赫尔曼与塞尔，剑桥，麻省: 麻省理工出版社，剑桥，麻省理工出版社。
</ref><ref name="Ashby1950">
</ref><ref name="Ashby1950">
</ref > < ref name ="ashby1950">
1956. ''[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html An Introduction to Cybernetics]'', Chapman & Hall.
1956. [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html An Introduction to Cybernetics], Chapman & Hall.
1956.控制论导论》 ，查普曼 http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ashbbook.html 出版社。
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</ref >
In the 1980s [[John Henry Holland]], [[Murray Gell-Mann]] and others coined the term "[[complex adaptive system]]" at the interdisciplinary [[Santa Fe Institute]].
In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.
在20世纪80年代，John Henry Holland，默里·盖尔曼和其他人在跨学科的圣菲研究所中创造了一个术语: 复杂适应性系统。
==Concepts==
;Environment and boundaries
Environment and boundaries
环境与界限
:[[Systems theory]] views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its [[Boundary (topology)|boundary]]; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the [[environment (systems)|environment]]. One can make simplified representations ([[Scientific modelling|models]]) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the [[structure]] and [[behavior]] of the system.
Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment. One can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.
系统论认为世界是一个由相互连接的部分组成的复杂系统。一种方法是通过定义系统的边界来确定系统的范围; 这意味着选择哪些实体位于系统内部，哪些实体位于环境的外部。人们可以对系统进行简化表示(模型) ，以便理解它，并预测或影响其未来的行为。这些模型可以定义系统的结构和行为。
;Natural and human-made systems
Natural and human-made systems
自然和人造系统
:There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.
There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.
有自然系统和人造系统。自然系统可能没有明显的目标，但是它们的行为可以被观察者解释为有目的的。人造系统的目的各不相同，这些目的是通过系统执行或与系统一起执行的某些行动来实现的。一个系统的各个部分必须相互关联; 它们必须“作为一个连贯的实体运作”ーー否则它们将成为两个或两个以上不同的系统。
[[File:OpenSystemRepresentation.svg|thumb|252px|''Open systems'' have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.]]
Open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.
开放系统有输入和输出流，代表物质、能量或信息与其周围环境的交换。
;Theoretical framework
Theoretical framework
理论框架
:Most systems are [[Open system (thermodynamics)|open systems]], exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a [[coffeemaker]], or [[Earth]]. A [[closed system]] exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project [[Biosphere 2]]. An [[isolated system]] exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the [[Universe]].
Most systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or Earth. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project Biosphere 2. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe.
大多数系统是开放系统，与周围环境交换物质和能量，比如汽车、咖啡机或地球。一个封闭的系统与它的环境交换能量，但不是物质; 就像一台计算机或生物圈2号项目。一个孤立的系统与它的环境既不交换物质也不交换能量。这种系统的一个理论例子是宇宙。
;Process and transformation process
Process and transformation process
过程和转换过程
:An [[open system (systems theory)|open system]] can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a [[black box]] that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.
An open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.
一个开放系统也可以被看作是一个有界的转换过程，也就是说，一个黑盒子，它是一个将输入转换为输出的过程或过程的集合。投入被消耗，产出被生产。这里输入和输出的概念非常广泛。例如，一艘客轮的输出就是人们从出发地到达目的地的运动。
;System model
System model
系统模型
:A system comprises [[view model|multiple views]]. Man-made systems may have such views as [[concept]], [[systems analysis|analysis]], [[Systems design|design]], [[implementation]], deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A [[system model]] is required to describe and represent all these views.
A system comprises multiple views. Man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views.
一个系统包含多个视图。人造系统可能具有如下视图: 概念、分析、设计、实现、部署、结构、行为、输入数据和输出数据视图。需要一个系统模型来描述和表示所有这些视图。
;Systems architecture
Systems architecture
系统架构
:A [[systems architecture]], using one single integrated model for the description of [[view model|multiple views]], is a kind of [[system model]].
A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.
系统体系结构是用一个单一的集成模型来描述多个视图，是一种系统模型。
===Subsystem===
A ''subsystem'' is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe ''Job Entry Subsystem'' family ([[JES1]], [[JES2]], [[JES3]], and their [[Houston Automatic Spooling Priority|HASP]]/[[Attached Support Processor|ASP]] predecessors) are examples. The main ''elements'' they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.
A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.
子系统是一组元素，它是一个系统本身，也是一个更大系统的组成部分。IBM 大型机作业输入子系统系列(JES1、 JES2、 JES3及其 HASP/ASP 前身)就是例子。它们共有的主要元素是处理输入、调度、假脱机和输出的组件; 它们还具有与本地和远程操作员交互的能力。
A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system.<ref>IBM's definition @ http://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i5_54/rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm</ref> The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).<ref>{{Cite book|title=European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128|last=|first=|publisher=CENELEC|year=2011|isbn=|location=Brussels, Belgium|pages=Table A.11 – Data Préparation Techniques (8.4)}}</ref>
A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).
子系统描述是一个系统对象，它包含定义由系统控制的操作环境特征的信息。执行数据测试是为了验证各个子系统配置数据的正确性(例如:。MA 的长度，静态速度剖面，...) ，他们是相关的一个单一的子系统，以测试其具体应用(SA)。
==Analysis==
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] and [[Qualitative research|qualitatively]]. For example, in an analysis of urban [[System dynamics|systems dynamics]], A .W. Steiss<ref>Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</ref> defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]]<ref>Bailey, 1994.</ref> defined systems in terms of [[conceptual system|conceptual]], [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], and abstract systems, either [[Isolated system|isolated]], [[Closed system|closed]], or [[Open system (systems theory)|open]]. [[Walter F. Buckley]]<ref>Buckley, 1967.</ref> defined systems in sociology in terms of [[Mechanics|mechanical]], [[organic (model)|organic]], and [[process modeling|process]] models. [[Bela H. Banathy]]<ref>Banathy, 1997.</ref> cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
有许多类型的系统，可以进行定量和定性分析。例如，在城市系统动力学分析中，a。斯泰斯定义了5个交叉系统，包括物质系统和行为系统。对于受系统理论影响的社会学模型，Kenneth d. Bailey 用概念化、具体化和抽象化的系统来定义系统，无论是孤立的、封闭的还是开放的。巴克利在社会学中将系统定义为机械的、有机的和过程模型。贝拉 · h · 班纳西警告说，对于任何对一个系统的调查来说，了解它的类型是至关重要的，并定义了“自然”和“设计” ，即人工的系统。
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, [[living systems theory|living systems]], the [[solar system]], [[Galaxy|galaxies]], and the [[Universe]], while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = How can a system select goals, etc.? Most systems are not self-aware or self describing. What does concentrated or disturbed mean in this context?}}
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.
重要的是不要混淆这些抽象的定义。例如，自然系统包括亚原子系统、生命系统、太阳系统、星系和宇宙，而人造系统包括人造物理结构、自然系统和人造系统的混合体以及概念知识。强调组织和功能的人的因素及其相关的抽象系统和表现形式。区分不同系统的一个主要考虑因素是确定系统在选择其目的、目标、方法、工具等方面有多大的自由度。以及选择分布或集中的自由程度。
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = Needs clearer explanation. e.g., what are the fundamental assumptions involved in a hammer, or a refrigerator. What makes a man-made dam system different from a beaver dam in this context?}}{{citation needed|date = June 2019}} These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in [[geometry]] this is very evident in the postulation of [[theorem]]s and extrapolation of proofs from them.
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.
人工系统天生就有一个重大缺陷: 它们必须以一个或多个基本假设为前提，而这些基本假设又是额外知识的基础。这些基本假设本质上并不是有害的，但是它们必须被定义为真，如果它们实际上是假的，那么这个系统在结构上并不像假设的那样是完整的。例如，在几何学中，这在定理的假设和从定理中证明的外推中是非常明显的。
[[George J. Klir]]<ref>Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72</ref> maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, [[The Real|real]], and [[conceptual system|conceptual]] [[physical systems]], bounded and [[unbounded system]]s, discrete to continuous, pulse to [[hybrid system]]s, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and [[open system (systems theory)|open systems]]. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made<ref>Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.</ref> between ''hard'' systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as [[systems engineering]], operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and ''soft'' systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by [[Peter Checkland]] and [[Brian Wilson (systems scientist)|Brian Wilson]] through [[Soft systems methodology|Soft Systems Methodology]] (SSM) involving methods such as [[action research]] and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
George j. Klir 认为没有“完全和完美的分类” ，并将系统定义为抽象的、真实的和概念性的物理系统、有界的和无界的系统、离散到连续的系统、脉冲到混合系统等。系统与其环境之间的交互可分为相对封闭和开放的系统。一个绝对封闭的系统似乎不太可能存在，即使存在，也不太可能为人所知。在硬系统和软系统之间也有重要的区别，硬系统在自然界是技术性的，可以适应诸如系统工程、运筹学和定量系统分析等方法，软系统涉及人和组织，通常与 Peter Checkland 和 Brian Wilson 通过软体系统方法论开发的概念相关，包括诸如行动研究和强调参与式设计等方法。在硬系统可能被认为更“科学”的地方，它们之间的区别往往是难以捉摸的。
===Cultural system===
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of [[culture]]. While a cultural system is quite different from a [[social system]], sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the [[Social order|problem of order]].
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.
文化系统可以定义为不同文化要素之间的相互作用。虽然文化系统与社会系统大不相同，但有时两者合在一起被称为”社会文化系统”。社会科学的一个主要关注点是秩序问题。
===Economic system===
{{Main|Economic system}}
An economic system is a mechanism ([[social institution]]) which deals with the [[Economic production|production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] in a particular [[society]]. The economic system is composed of [[person|people]], [[institutions]] and their relationships to resources, such as the [[Convention (norm)|convention]] of [[property]]. It addresses the problems of [[economics]], like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
经济制度是一种机制(社会制度) ，它处理一个特定社会中商品和服务的生产、分配和消费。经济体系由人、制度及其与资源的关系组成，如财产制度。它解决了经济问题，比如资源的分配和稀缺。
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the [[Neorealism (international relations)|neorealist school.]] This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the [[Constructivism (international relations)|constructivist school]], which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the [[Institutional liberalism|liberal institutionalist]] school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
几位国际关系学者，尤其是新现实主义学派的学者，从系统的角度描述和分析了相互作用国家的国际领域。然而，这种国际分析的系统模式受到其他国际关系思想流派的挑战，其中最显著的是建构主义学派，该学派认为，过分关注系统和结构可能掩盖个人在社会互动中的作用。以制度为基础的国际关系模式也是自由制度主义思想学派对国际领域的看法的基础，该学派更加强调由规则和相互作用治理，特别是经济治理所产生的制度。
==Application of the system concept==
Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.
Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.
系统建模是工程学和社会科学的基本原理。该系统是所关注实体的代表。因此，对系统上下文的包含或排除取决于建模者的意图。
No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
一个系统的任何模型都不会包括真正关注系统的所有特征，一个系统的任何模型都不必包括属于真正关注系统的所有实体。
===In information and computer science===
In [[computer science]] and [[information science]], '''system''' is a hardware system, [[software system]], or combination, which has [[Component (UML)|components]] as its structure and observable [[inter-process communication]]s as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with [[Roman numerals]], and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]] is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).
In computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).
在计算机科学和信息科学中，系统是以组件为结构，以可观察的进程间通信为行为的硬件系统、软件系统或组合。再举一个例子来说明: 有计算系统，如罗马数字，和各种系统归档文件，或目录，以及各种图书馆系统，其中杜威十进制图书分类法图书馆就是一个例子。这仍然符合连接在一起的组件的定义(在这种情况下是为了方便信息流)。
System can also refer to a framework, aka [[platform (computing)|platform]], be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect [[Statement (computer science)|statement]] or [[Data definition language|data definition]] <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://glossar.german-testing-board.info/|title=ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref>
System can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition
系统也可以指一个框架，也就是平台，无论是软件还是硬件，设计用来允许软件程序运行。组件或系统中的缺陷可能导致组件本身或整个系统无法执行其所需功能，例如不正确的语句或数据定义
===In engineering and physics===
In [[engineering]] and [[physics]], a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a [[thermodynamic system]] is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. [[Systems engineering]] is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected [[result]] is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.<ref name=":0" />
In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.
在工程学和物理学中，物理系统是正在研究的宇宙的一部分(热力学系统就是一个主要的例子)。工程学还有一个系统的概念，涉及到复杂项目的所有部分和部分之间的交互。系统工程是工程学的一个分支，研究如何规划、设计、实现、构建和维护这种类型的系统。预期的结果是指在特定条件下，部件或系统的规范或其他来源所预测的行为。
===In social and cognitive sciences and management research===
Social and [[cognitive science]]s recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.
Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.
社会和认知科学认可人类模型和人类社会中的系统。它们包括人类的大脑功能和心理过程，以及规范伦理学系统和社会/文化行为模式。
In [[management science]], [[operations research]] and [[organizational development]] (OD), human organizations are viewed as '''systems''' (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex [[business processes]] ([[organizational behavior]]s) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist [[Peter Senge]] developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book ''The Fifth Discipline''.
In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline.
在管理科学、运筹学和组织发展学中，人类组织被看作是子系统或系统集合体等相互作用的组成部分的系统(概念系统) ，是众多复杂业务流程(组织行为)和组织结构的载体。组织发展理论家彼得 · 森吉在他的《第五纪律》一书中提出了组织作为系统的概念。
[[Systems thinking]] is a style of thinking/[[reasoning]] and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can ''think globally while acting locally''. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.
Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.
系统思考是一种思考/推理和解决问题的方式。它从识别给定问题中的系统属性开始。它可以是一种领导能力。有些人可以放眼全球，同时在当地采取行动。这些人考虑他们的决定对大系统的其他部分的潜在后果。这也是心理学系统辅导的基础。
[[Organizational studies|Organizational theorists]] such as [[Margaret Wheatley]] have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as [[quantum physics]], [[chaos theory]], and the [[self-organizing systems|self-organization of systems]].
Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.
组织理论家，如 Margaret Wheatley，也描述了组织系统在新的隐喻背景下的工作，如量子物理学，混沌理论，系统的自我组织。
===Pure logical systems===
There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by [[Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton]]. Another example is [[George Boole]]'s Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including [[Carl Jung]] and [[Sigmund Freud]] have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a [[corollary]] such as a [[theorem]]. Logic has been applied to categories such as [[taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]], [[ontology]], [[educational assessment|assessment]], and [[hierarchies]].
There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Another example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. Logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.
还有一种东西叫做逻辑系统。最明显的例子就是莱布尼茨和艾萨克 · 牛顿同时开发的微积分。另一个例子是 George Boole 的布尔运算符。其他的例子特别与哲学、生物学或认知科学有关。马斯洛的需求层次理论通过使用纯逻辑将心理学应用于生物学。许多心理学家，包括卡尔 · 荣格和西格蒙德 · 弗洛伊德，已经开发出一套系统，可以逻辑地组织心理学领域，比如人格、动机、智力和欲望。这些领域通常由一般范畴组成，这些范畴遵循一个推论，如定理。逻辑被应用于分类、本体、评估和层次结构等类别。
===Applied to strategic thinking===
In 1988, military strategist, [[John A. Warden III]] introduced the [[Warden's Five Rings|Five Ring System]] model in his book, ''The Air Campaign'', contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the [[First Gulf War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |title=The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat |publisher=National Defense University Press |location=Washington, D.C. |date=1988 |isbn=978-1-58348-100-4 |authorlink=John A. Warden III}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=September 1995
In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced the Five Ring System model in his book, The Air Campaign, contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=September 1995
1988年，军事战略家约翰 a。华登三世在他的书《空军战役》中介绍了五环系统模型，认为任何复杂的系统都可以分解成五个同心环。每个环节ーー领导力、流程、基础设施、人口和行动单位ーー都可以用来隔离任何需要变革的系统的关键元素。在第一次海湾战争中，空军计划人员有效地使用了该模型。< ref > { cite book | last = Warden | first = John a. III | date = September 1995
|chapter=Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century
|chapter=Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century
| 第四章: 21世纪的空气理论
|chapter-url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html |accessdate=December 26, 2008 |title=Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues |chapter-format=in ''Air and Space Power Journal''
|chapter-url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html |accessdate=December 26, 2008 |title=Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues |chapter-format=in Air and Space Power Journal
26,2008 | title = 未来的战场: 21世纪的战争问题 | chapter-format = in Air and Space Power Journal. | chapter-url = http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html | accessdate = December 26,2008 | title = 未来的战场: 21世纪的战争问题 | chapter-format = in Air and Space Power Journal
|publisher =United States Air Force}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Warden |first=John A. III |date=1995 |title=Enemy as a System |journal=Airpower Journal |volume=Spring |issue=9 |pages=40–55|url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj95/spr95_files/warden.htm |accessdate=2009-03-25 }}</ref> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Leland A. |author2=Warden, John A. |title=Winning in FastTime: Harness the Competitive Advantage of Prometheus in Business and in Life |publisher=GEO Group Press |location=Newport Beach, CA |date=2001 |isbn=0-9712697-1-8 }}</ref>
|publisher =United States Air Force}}</ref> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.
20世纪90年代末，华登将他的模型应用于商业战略。
==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
;Examples of systems
Examples of systems
系统的例子
* [[Physical system]]
* [[Conceptual system]]
* [[Complex system]]
* [[Formal system]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Information system]]
* [[Meta-system]]
* [[Solar System]]
* [[Human anatomy|Systems in human anatomy]]
* [[Market (economics)|Market]]
* [[Thermodynamic system]]s
{{Col-break}}
{{Portal|Systems science}}
;Related topics
Related topics
相关话题
* [[Glossary of systems theory]]
* [[Complexity theory and organizations]]
* [[Black box]]
* [[System of systems]] ([[System of systems engineering|engineering]])
* [[Systems art]]
{{col-end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
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{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
{ columns-list | colwidth = 30em |
* Alexander Backlund (2000). "[https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/03684920010322055 The definition of system]". In: ''Kybernetes'' Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp. 444–451.
* [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994). ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis''. New York: State of New York Press.
* [[Bela H. Banathy]] (1997). [http://www.newciv.org/ISSS_Primer/asem04bb.html "A Taste of Systemics"], ISSS The Primer Project.
* [[Walter F. Buckley]] (1967). '' Sociology and Modern Systems Theory'', New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
* [[Peter Checkland]] (1997). ''Systems Thinking, Systems Practice''. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
* [[Michel Crozier]], Erhard Friedberg (1981). ''Actors and Systems'', Chicago University Press.
* [[Robert L. Flood]] (1999). ''[http://www.msbkwt.com/joomla/images/FILES2018-19/Library/E-Books/Rethinking-The-Fifth-Discipline.pdf Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the unknowable]''. London: Routledge.
* [[George J. Klir]] (1969). Approach to General Systems Theory, 1969.
* [[Brian Wilson (systems scientist)|Brian Wilson]] (1980). ''Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications'', John Wiley
* Brian Wilson (2001). ''Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model building and its contribution'', J.H.Wiley.
* Beynon-Davies P. (2009). ''Business Information + Systems''. Palgrave, Basingstoke. {{ISBN|978-0-230-20368-6}}
}}
}}
}}
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{{Wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/4b.html ''Definitions of Systems and Models''] by Michael Pidwirny, 1999–2007.
* [http://www.muellerscience.com/SPEZIALITAETEN/System/Lit.System%281556-2001%29.htm ''Publications with the title "System" (1600–2008)] by Roland Müller.
* [http://www.muellerscience.com/SPEZIALITAETEN/System/System_Definitionen.htm ''Definitionen von "System" (1572–2002)''] by Roland Müller, (most in German).
{{Systems engineering}}
{{Systems}}
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:System]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[系统/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
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