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From the thermodynamic viewpoint that considers (a), passages from one equilibrium state to another, only a roughly approximate picture appears, because living organisms are never in states of thermodynamic equilibrium. Living organisms must often be considered as open systems, because they take in nutrients and give out waste products. Thermodynamics of open systems is currently often considered in terms of passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, or in terms of flows in the approximation of local thermodynamic equilibrium. The problem for living organisms may be further simplified by the approximation of assuming a steady state with unchanging flows. General principles of entropy production for such approximations are subject to unsettled current debate or research. Nevertheless, ideas derived from this viewpoint on the second law of thermodynamics are enlightening about living creatures.

From the thermodynamic viewpoint that considers (a), passages from one equilibrium state to another, only a roughly approximate picture appears, because living organisms are never in states of thermodynamic equilibrium. Living organisms must often be considered as open systems, because they take in nutrients and give out waste products. Thermodynamics of open systems is currently often considered in terms of passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, or in terms of flows in the approximation of local thermodynamic equilibrium. The problem for living organisms may be further simplified by the approximation of assuming a steady state with unchanging flows. General principles of entropy production for such approximations are subject to unsettled current debate or research. Nevertheless, ideas derived from this viewpoint on the second law of thermodynamics are enlightening about living creatures.

从(a)的热力学观点考虑 ，即考虑从一个平衡状态到另一个平衡状态的路径，只会产生一个粗略近似的图像，因为生命体从来不会处于热力学平衡状态。生物体经常必须被认为是开放的系统，因为它们吸收营养物质并排出废弃物。开放系统热力学目前通常从一个热力学平衡状态到另一个状态的路径的角度来考虑，或者是考虑局部热力学平衡近似下的流。生命体的问题可以通过假定一个流不变的稳态来进一步简化。对于这样的近似，熵产生的一般原理在'''目前有争论和研究的不确定性Non-equilibrium thermodynamics|unsettled current debate or research'''。尽管如此，从热力学第二定律的这个角度出发衍生出来的想法对生物是有启发意义的。

从(a)的热力学观点考虑，即考虑从一个平衡状态到另一个平衡状态的路径，只会产生一个粗略近似的图像，因为生命体从来不会处于热力学平衡状态。生物体经常必须被认为是开放的系统，因为它们吸收营养物质并排出废弃物。开放系统热力学目前通常从一个热力学平衡状态到另一个状态的路径的角度来考虑，或者是考虑局部热力学平衡近似下的流。【】生命体的问题可以通过假定一个流不变的稳态来进一步简化。对于这样的近似，熵产生的一般原理在'''目前有争论和研究的不确定性Non-equilibrium thermodynamics|unsettled current debate or research'''。尽管如此，从热力学第二定律的这个角度出发衍生出来的想法对生物是有启发意义的。

==Gravitational systems==

==Gravitational systems==