更改

例如，科学家为什么要合作？科学变得越来越孤立，因为每个科学领域的传播越来越广泛，一个人不可能意识到所有的发展。尤其是需要特殊技能的实验研究，因为高度先进的设备操作需要一定的知识背景。通过合作，科学家们可以利用不同领域的信息并有效地利用它，而不仅仅是靠自己阅读来收集所有信息。

例如，科学家为什么要合作？科学变得越来越孤立，因为每个科学领域的传播越来越广泛，一个人不可能意识到所有的发展。尤其是需要特殊技能的实验研究，因为高度先进的设备操作需要一定的知识背景。通过合作，科学家们可以利用不同领域的信息并有效地利用它，而不仅仅是靠自己阅读来收集所有信息。

=== Coordination ===

=== Coordination 协调 ===

==== Ad-hoc communities ====

==== Ad-hoc communities 临时社区 ====

Military, trade unions, and corporations satisfy some definitions of CI – the most rigorous definition would require a capacity to respond to very arbitrary conditions without orders or guidance from "law" or "customers" to constrain actions. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies.<ref>Lee, Sang M., et al. "Success factors of platform leadership in web 2.0 service business." Service Business 4.2 (2010): 89–103.</ref>

Military, trade unions, and corporations satisfy some definitions of CI – the most rigorous definition would require a capacity to respond to very arbitrary conditions without orders or guidance from "law" or "customers" to constrain actions. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies.

Military, trade unions, and corporations satisfy some definitions of CI – the most rigorous definition would require a capacity to respond to very arbitrary conditions without orders or guidance from "law" or "customers" to constrain actions. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies.

Military, trade unions, and corporations satisfy some definitions of CI – the most rigorous definition would require a capacity to respond to very arbitrary conditions without orders or guidance from "law" or "customers" to constrain actions. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies.

The [https://web.archive.org/web/20151103044224/http://unu.ai/ UNU] open platform for "human swarming" (or "social swarming") establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence.<ref name="Human Swarms">{{cite web|url=http://news.discovery.com/human/life/swarms-of-humans-power-a-i-platform-150603.htm|title=Swarms of Humans Power A.I. Platform|last=DNews|date=3 June 2015|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html|first1=Louis B.|title=07/20/2015-07/24/2015|last1=Rosenberg|first2=Unanimous|last2=A.I.|first3=San|last3=Francisco|last4=California|last5=USA|date=1 January 2016|volume=13|pages=658–659|doi=10.7551/978-0-262-33027-5-ch117|isbn=9780262330275|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027132802/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html|archive-date=27 October 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time.<ref>Rosenberg, L.B., "Human swarming, a real-time method for parallel distributed intelligence," in Swarm/Human Blended Intelligence Workshop (SHBI), 2015, vol., no., pp.1–7, 28–29 Sept. 2015  doi: [https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/SHBI.2015.7321685 10.1109/SHBI.2015.7321685]</ref>  Early testing shows that human swarms can out-predict individuals.<ref name="Human Swarms"/> In 2016, an UNU swarm was challenged by a reporter to predict the winners of the Kentucky Derby, and successfully picked the first four horses, in order, beating 540 to 1 odds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/artificial-intelligence-turns-20-11000-kentucky-derby-bet-457783|title=Artificial intelligence turns $20 into $11,000 in Kentucky Derby bet|date=10 May 2016|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/06/02/what-happened-when-an-ai-hive-mind-answered-reddits-burning-politics-questions/|title=What happened when an A.I. hive mind answered Reddit's burning politics questions|first=Abby|last=Ohlheiser|date=2 June 2016|publisher=|via=washingtonpost.com}}</ref>

The UNU open platform for "human swarming" (or "social swarming") establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence. When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time. Early testing shows that human swarms can out-predict individuals. In 2016, an UNU swarm was challenged by a reporter to predict the winners of the Kentucky Derby, and successfully picked the first four horses, in order, beating 540 to 1 odds.

The [https://web.archive.org/web/20151103044224/http://unu.ai/ UNU] open platform for "human swarming" (or "social swarming") establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence. When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time.  Early testing shows that human swarms can out-predict individuals.

The UNU open platform for "human swarming" (or "social swarming") establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence. When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time.  Early testing shows that human swarms can out-predict individuals.

Specialized information sites such as Digital Photography Review<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dpreview.com/|title=Digital Photography Review|website=www.dpreview.com|access-date=2016-12-07}}</ref> or Camera Labs<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cameralabs.com/|title=Camera reviews, DSLR reviews, lens reviews, photography guides {{!}} Cameralabs|website=www.cameralabs.com|access-date=2016-12-07}}</ref> is an example of collective intelligence. Anyone who has an access to the internet can contribute to distributing their knowledge over the world through the specialized information sites.

Specialized information sites such as Digital Photography Review or Camera Labs is an example of collective intelligence. Anyone who has an access to the internet can contribute to distributing their knowledge over the world through the specialized information sites.

Specialized information sites such as Digital Photography Review or Camera Labs is an example of collective intelligence. Anyone who has an access to the internet can contribute to distributing their knowledge over the world through the specialized information sites.

Specialized information sites such as Digital Photography Review or Camera Labs is an example of collective intelligence. Anyone who has an access to the internet can contribute to distributing their knowledge over the world through the specialized information sites.

In [[learner-generated context]] a group of users marshal resources to create an ecology that meets their needs often (but not only) in relation to the co-configuration, co-creation and co-design of a particular learning space that allows learners to create their own context.<ref>Luckin, R., du Boulay, B., Smith, H., Underwood, J., Fitzpatrick, G., Holmberg, J., Kerawalla, L., Tunley, H., Brewster, D. and Pearce, D. (2005), '[http://srodev.sussex.ac.uk/403/1/jime.pdf Using Mobile Technology to Create Flexible Learning Contexts] '. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 22.</ref><ref>Luckin, R. (2006), Understanding Learning Contexts as Ecologies of Resources: From the Zone of Proximal Development to Learner Generated Contexts. Paper presented at the Proceedings of World Conference on Elearning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2006.</ref><ref>Luckin, R., Shurville, S. and Browne, T. (2007), '[https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/13334/blankfile.xxxx?sequence=1 Initiating e-learning by stealth, participation and consultation in a late majority institution]'. {{open access}} ''Journal of Organisational Transformation and Social Change'', '''3''' (3), 317–332. {{doi|10.1386/jots.3.3.317_1}}</ref> Learner-generated contexts represent an ''ad hoc'' community that facilitates coordination of collective action in a network of trust. An example of learner-generated context is found on the Internet when collaborative users pool knowledge in a "[[shared intelligence]] space". As the Internet has developed so has the concept of CI as a shared public forum. The global accessibility and availability of the Internet has allowed more people than ever to contribute and access ideas. (Flew 2008)

In [[learner-generated context]] a group of users marshal resources to create an ecology that meets their needs often (but not only) in relation to the co-configuration, co-creation and co-design of a particular learning space that allows learners to create their own context. Learner-generated contexts represent an ''ad hoc'' community that facilitates coordination of collective action in a network of trust. An example of learner-generated context is found on the Internet when collaborative users pool knowledge in a "[[shared intelligence]] space". As the Internet has developed so has the concept of CI as a shared public forum. The global accessibility and availability of the Internet has allowed more people than ever to contribute and access ideas. (Flew 2008)

In learner-generated context a group of users marshal resources to create an ecology that meets their needs often (but not only) in relation to the co-configuration, co-creation and co-design of a particular learning space that allows learners to create their own context. Learner-generated contexts represent an ad hoc community that facilitates coordination of collective action in a network of trust. An example of learner-generated context is found on the Internet when collaborative users pool knowledge in a "shared intelligence space". As the Internet has developed so has the concept of CI as a shared public forum. The global accessibility and availability of the Internet has allowed more people than ever to contribute and access ideas. (Flew 2008)

In learner-generated context a group of users marshal resources to create an ecology that meets their needs often (but not only) in relation to the co-configuration, co-creation and co-design of a particular learning space that allows learners to create their own context. Learner-generated contexts represent an ad hoc community that facilitates coordination of collective action in a network of trust. An example of learner-generated context is found on the Internet when collaborative users pool knowledge in a "shared intelligence space". As the Internet has developed so has the concept of CI as a shared public forum. The global accessibility and availability of the Internet has allowed more people than ever to contribute and access ideas. (Flew 2008)

Games such as ''[[The Sims]]'' Series, and ''[[Second Life]]'' are designed to be non-linear and to depend on collective intelligence for expansion. This way of sharing is gradually evolving and influencing the mindset of the current and future generations.<ref name="Weiss, A. 2005 pp. 19-23"/> For them, collective intelligence has become a norm. In Terry Flew's discussion of '[[interactivity]]' in the online games environment, the ongoing interactive dialogue between users and game developers,<ref>Flew, Terry and Humphreys, Sal (2005) "Games: Technology, Industry, Culture" in Terry Flew, New Media: An Introduction (2nd edn), Oxford University Press, South Melbourne 101–114.</ref> he refers to Pierre Lévy's concept of Collective Intelligence {{Harv|Lévy|1998}} and argues this is active in videogames as clans or guilds in [[MMORPG]] constantly work to achieve goals. [[Henry Jenkins]] proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. Jenkins argues that this new participatory culture arises at the intersection of three broad new media trends.<ref>Henry Jenkins (2002) in Flew, Terry and Humphreys, Sal (2005) ''Games: Technology, Industry, Culture'' in Terry Flew, New Media: An Introduction (2nd edn), Oxford University Press, South Melbourne 101–114.</ref> Firstly, the development of new media tools/technologies enabling the creation of content. Secondly, the rise of subcultures promoting such creations, and lastly, the growth of value adding media conglomerates, which foster image, idea and narrative flow.

Games such as The Sims Series, and Second Life are designed to be non-linear and to depend on collective intelligence for expansion. This way of sharing is gradually evolving and influencing the mindset of the current and future generations.[128] For them, collective intelligence has become a norm. In Terry Flew's discussion of 'interactivity' in the online games environment, the ongoing interactive dialogue between users and game developers,[161] he refers to Pierre Lévy's concept of Collective Intelligence (Lévy 1998) and argues this is active in videogames as clans or guilds in MMORPG constantly work to achieve goals. Henry Jenkins proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. Jenkins argues that this new participatory culture arises at the intersection of three broad new media trends.[162] Firstly, the development of new media tools/technologies enabling the creation of content. Secondly, the rise of subcultures promoting such creations, and lastly, the growth of value adding media conglomerates, which foster image, idea and narrative flow.

Games such as The Sims Series, and Second Life are designed to be non-linear and to depend on collective intelligence for expansion. This way of sharing is gradually evolving and influencing the mindset of the current and future generations. he refers to Pierre Lévy's concept of Collective Intelligence  and argues this is active in videogames as clans or guilds in MMORPG constantly work to achieve goals. Henry Jenkins proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. Jenkins argues that this new participatory culture arises at the intersection of three broad new media trends. Firstly, the development of new media tools/technologies enabling the creation of content. Secondly, the rise of subcultures promoting such creations, and lastly, the growth of value adding media conglomerates, which foster image, idea and narrative flow.

Games such as The Sims Series, and Second Life are designed to be non-linear and to depend on collective intelligence for expansion. This way of sharing is gradually evolving and influencing the mindset of the current and future generations. he refers to Pierre Lévy's concept of Collective Intelligence  and argues this is active in videogames as clans or guilds in MMORPG constantly work to achieve goals. Henry Jenkins proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. Jenkins argues that this new participatory culture arises at the intersection of three broad new media trends. Firstly, the development of new media tools/technologies enabling the creation of content. Secondly, the rise of subcultures promoting such creations, and lastly, the growth of value adding media conglomerates, which foster image, idea and narrative flow.

像模拟人生系列和第二人生这样的游戏被设计成非线性的，依靠集体智慧来扩展。这种分享方式正在逐渐演变，并影响着今世后代的心态。他引用了皮埃尔 · l · 维的集体智慧的概念，并认为这一概念在电子游戏中非常活跃，因为 MMORPG 中的部落或行会不断努力以实现目标。亨利 · 詹金斯提出，游戏制作者、媒体公司和最终用户之间出现的参与性文化标志着媒体生产和消费性质的根本性转变。詹金斯认为，这种新的参与式文化产生于三大新媒体趋势的交汇点。首先，开发新的媒体工具 / 技术，使创作内容成为可能。其次，亚文化的兴起促进了这种创造，最后，传媒集团的价值增长，促进了形象、观念和叙事流程的形成。

《模拟人生》系列和《第二人生》等游戏的设计是非线性的，并依靠集体智能进行扩展。这种共享方式会自我进化，并同步影响当前及未来新生代产品的思维方式。对于他们来说，集体智能已经成为了一种常态。在特里·弗尔Terry Flew关于对网络游戏环境“交互性”的讨论中（即用户与游戏开发人员之间的交互对话），他提到了皮埃尔·列维的“集体智能”概念（Lévy 1998），并认为这在电子游戏中非常活跃，就像是MMORPG中的部族或公会一样，会不断努力去实现目标。亨利·詹金斯Henry Jenkins提出，游戏生产商，媒体公司和终端用户之间形成的参与式文化，标志着媒体的生产消费性质在根本性转变。詹金斯认为，这种新的参与式文化源于三大新媒体趋势的交融。首先，开发的新媒体工具/技术促使内容的创建。然后亚文化的兴起促进了这种创造，最后，增值媒体集团壮大了形象，思想和叙事的传播。

==== Coordinating collective actions ====

==== Coordinating collective actions 协调集体行动 ====

[[File:Improvisational_actors.jpg|thumb|The cast of After School Improv learns an important lesson about improvisation and life]]

[[文件:Improvisational actors.jpg|缩略图|右|After School Improv的演员学习了有关即兴创作和表演的重要课程]]

Improvisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term "group mind", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement, leading to the unity of "group mind".

 

 

Improvisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term "group mind", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Vera|first=Dusya|last2=Crossan|first2=Mary|date=2004-06-01|title=Theatrical Improvisation: Lessons for Organizations|journal=Organization Studies|volume=25|issue=5|pages=727–749|doi=10.1177/0170840604042412}}</ref> leading to the unity of "group mind".<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=*|first=R. Keith Sawyer|date=2004-06-01|title=Improvised lessons: collaborative discussion in the constructivist classroom|journal=Teaching Education|volume=15|issue=2|pages=189–201|doi=10.1080/1047621042000213610}}</ref>

Improvisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term "group mind", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement, leading to the unity of "group mind".

Improvisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term "group mind", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement, leading to the unity of "group mind".

Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand.<ref name="Wolpert arXiv:cs/9905004"/> The full impact has yet to be felt but the [[anti-globalization movement]], for example, relies heavily on e-mail, cell phones, pagers, SMS and other means of organizing.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vskz1poDuvoC&pg=PR7&dq=anti+globalization+collective+intelligence#v=onepage|title=Globalization / Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide|last=Held|first=David|last2=McGrew|first2=Anthony|date=2007-11-19|publisher=Polity|isbn=9780745639116}}</ref> The [[Indymedia]] organization does this in a more journalistic way.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2001/09/11129.html|title='Anti-Globals' Use Internet As Collective Intelligence – UK Indymedia|website=www.indymedia.org.uk|access-date=2016-12-11}}</ref> Such resources could combine into a form of collective intelligence accountable only to the current participants yet with some strong moral or linguistic guidance from generations of contributors – or even take on a more obviously democratic form to advance shared goal.<ref name=":19" />

Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand. The full impact has yet to be felt but the [[anti-globalization movement]], for example, relies heavily on e-mail, cell phones, pagers, SMS and other means of organizing. Such resources could combine into a form of collective intelligence accountable only to the current participants yet with some strong moral or linguistic guidance from generations of contributors – or even take on a more obviously democratic form to advance shared goal.

Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand. The Indymedia organization does this in a more journalistic way. Such resources could combine into a form of collective intelligence accountable only to the current participants yet with some strong moral or linguistic guidance from generations of contributors – or even take on a more obviously democratic form to advance shared goal.

Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand. The Indymedia organization does this in a more journalistic way. Such resources could combine into a form of collective intelligence accountable only to the current participants yet with some strong moral or linguistic guidance from generations of contributors – or even take on a more obviously democratic form to advance shared goal.

A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations".<ref name="Idea Competitions">Jan Marco Leimeister, Michael Huber, Ulrich Bretschneider, Helmut Krcmar (2009): Leveraging Crowdsourcing: Activation-Supporting Components for IT-Based Ideas Competition. In: Journal of Management Information Systems (2009), Volume: 26, Issue: 1, Publisher: M.E. Sharpe Inc., Pages: 197–224, {{ISSN|0742-1222}}, {{doi|10.2753/MIS0742-1222260108}} [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1653890], Winfried Ebner; Jan Marco Leimeister; Helmut Krcmar (2009): Community Engineering for Innovations&nbsp;– The Ideas Competition as a method to nurture a Virtual Community for Innovations. In: R&D Management, 39 (4), pp 342–356 {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9310.2009.00564.x}} [https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/219672/1/JML_145.pdf]</ref> In such an integrated framework proposed by Ebner et al., idea competitions and virtual communities are combined to better realize the potential of the collective intelligence of the participants, particularly in open-source R&D.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ebner|first=Winfried|last2=Leimeister|first2=Jan Marco|last3=Krcmar|first3=Helmut|date=2009-09-01|title=Community engineering for innovations: the ideas competition as a method to nurture a virtual community for innovations|journal=R&D Management|volume=39|issue=4|pages=342–356|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9310.2009.00564.x|url=https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/219699/1/JML_173.pdf}}</ref> In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fladerer |first1=Johannes-Paul |last2=Kurzmann |first2=Ernst |title=WISDOM OF THE MANY : how to create self -organisation and how to use collective... intelligence in companies and in society from mana. |date=November 2019 |publisher=BOOKS ON DEMAND |isbn=9783750422421 |url=https://www.bod.de/buchshop/the-wisdom-of-the-many-johannes-paul-fladerer-9783750422421 |language=de}}</ref> Therefore, collective intelligence and crowd sourcing is not necessaryly leading to the best solution to economic problems, but to a stable, good solution.

A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations". In such an integrated framework proposed by Ebner et al., idea competitions and virtual communities are combined to better realize the potential of the collective intelligence of the participants, particularly in open-source R&D. In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues. Therefore, collective intelligence and crowd sourcing is not necessaryly leading to the best solution to economic problems, but to a stable, good solution.

A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations". In such an integrated framework proposed by Ebner et al., idea competitions and virtual communities are combined to better realize the potential of the collective intelligence of the participants, particularly in open-source R&D. In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues. Therefore, collective intelligence and crowd sourcing is not necessaryly leading to the best solution to economic problems, but to a stable, good solution.

A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations". In such an integrated framework proposed by Ebner et al., idea competitions and virtual communities are combined to better realize the potential of the collective intelligence of the participants, particularly in open-source R&D. In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues. Therefore, collective intelligence and crowd sourcing is not necessaryly leading to the best solution to economic problems, but to a stable, good solution.

==== Coordination in different types of tasks ====

==== Coordination in different types of tasks 协调不同类型的任务 ====

Collective actions or tasks require different amounts of coordination depending on the complexity of the task. Tasks vary from being highly independent simple tasks that require very little coordination to complex interdependent tasks that are built by many individuals and require a lot of coordination. In the article written by Kittur, Lee and Kraut the writers introduce a problem in cooperation: "When tasks require high coordination because the work is highly interdependent, having more contributors can increase process losses, reducing the effectiveness of the group below what individual members could optimally accomplish". Having a team too large the overall effectiveness may suffer even when the extra contributors increase the resources. In the end the overall costs from coordination might overwhelm other costs.<ref>Kittur, A., Lee, B. and Kraut, R. E. (2009) '[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1518928 Coordination in collective intelligence: The role of team structure and task interdependence]', Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, pp. 1495–1504.</ref>

Collective actions or tasks require different amounts of coordination depending on the complexity of the task. Tasks vary from being highly independent simple tasks that require very little coordination to complex interdependent tasks that are built by many individuals and require a lot of coordination. In the article written by Kittur, Lee and Kraut the writers introduce a problem in cooperation: "When tasks require high coordination because the work is highly interdependent, having more contributors can increase process losses, reducing the effectiveness of the group below what individual members could optimally accomplish". Having a team too large the overall effectiveness may suffer even when the extra contributors increase the resources. In the end the overall costs from coordination might overwhelm other costs.

Collective actions or tasks require different amounts of coordination depending on the complexity of the task. Tasks vary from being highly independent simple tasks that require very little coordination to complex interdependent tasks that are built by many individuals and require a lot of coordination. In the article written by Kittur, Lee and Kraut the writers introduce a problem in cooperation: "When tasks require high coordination because the work is highly interdependent, having more contributors can increase process losses, reducing the effectiveness of the group below what individual members could optimally accomplish". Having a team too large the overall effectiveness may suffer even when the extra contributors increase the resources. In the end the overall costs from coordination might overwhelm other costs.

Collective actions or tasks require different amounts of coordination depending on the complexity of the task. Tasks vary from being highly independent simple tasks that require very little coordination to complex interdependent tasks that are built by many individuals and require a lot of coordination. In the article written by Kittur, Lee and Kraut the writers introduce a problem in cooperation: "When tasks require high coordination because the work is highly interdependent, having more contributors can increase process losses, reducing the effectiveness of the group below what individual members could optimally accomplish". Having a team too large the overall effectiveness may suffer even when the extra contributors increase the resources. In the end the overall costs from coordination might overwhelm other costs.

Group collective intelligence is a property that emerges through coordination from both bottom-up and top-down processes. In a bottom-up process the different characteristics of each member are involved in contributing and enhancing coordination. Top-down processes are more strict and fixed with norms, group structures and routines that in their own way enhance the group's collective work.<ref>[18] Woolley, A. W., Aggarwal, I. and Malone, T. W. (2015) 'Collective Intelligence and Group Performance', Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(6), pp. 420–424.</ref>

Group collective intelligence is a property that emerges through coordination from both bottom-up and top-down processes. In a bottom-up process the different characteristics of each member are involved in contributing and enhancing coordination. Top-down processes are more strict and fixed with norms, group structures and routines that in their own way enhance the group's collective work.

Group collective intelligence is a property that emerges through coordination from both bottom-up and top-down processes. In a bottom-up process the different characteristics of each member are involved in contributing and enhancing coordination. Top-down processes are more strict and fixed with norms, group structures and routines that in their own way enhance the group's collective work.

Group collective intelligence is a property that emerges through coordination from both bottom-up and top-down processes. In a bottom-up process the different characteristics of each member are involved in contributing and enhancing coordination. Top-down processes are more strict and fixed with norms, group structures and routines that in their own way enhance the group's collective work.

== Alternative views ==

== Alternative views ==