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第30行： − “系统”即“关注对象”，系统化需要极高的视觉梯度。而哲学上，笛卡尔之前没有“系统”，柏拉图没有“系统”，亚里士多德的也没有“系统”。+ − --[[用户:Stefanie|Stefanie]]（[[用户讨论:Stefanie |讨论]]） 【审校】“关注对象”改为“一种观测对象” − − "System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967"> − − "System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".<ref name ="Marshall1967"> − − Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref> + − − 马素·麦克鲁汉 Marshall McLuhan: 冷与热。编辑: 杰拉尔德·伊曼纽尔·斯特恩 Gerald Emanuel Stearn。纽约新美国图书馆出版，1967年，第288页。 </ref > < ref > − − − {{cite book − − {引用书 − − − | last1 = 麦克鲁汉 − − − − | first1 = 马素 − − − − | author-link1 = 马素·麦克鲁汉 − − − − | chapter = 4: 冷热访谈 − − 4: The Hot and Cool Interview − − − | editor1-last = 穆斯 − − 1-last = Moos − − | editor1-first = Michel″ − − − | editor1-first = 米歇尔″ − − | editor1-link = − − − 1-link = − − + − | title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture − − | title = 媒体研究: 技术、艺术与传播: 艺术、理论与文化中的批判声音 − − | chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ − − − − | chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hzr_agaaqbaj − − − | series = 艺术、理论和文化中的批判声音 − − − | publisher = Routledge − − − | publisher = Routledge − − − | date = 2014 − − − − − | page = 74 − − − − | isbn = 9781134393145 − − − − − − | accessdate = 2015-05-06 − − − − | quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.' − − − − }} − − − }} − − </ref> − − − </ref > − − </blockquote> − − </blockquote> − − </blockquote >
→历史 History
<引用>
<引用>
“系统”即“一种观测对象”，系统化需要极高的视觉梯度。而哲学上，笛卡尔之前没有“系统”，柏拉图没有“系统”，亚里士多德的也没有“系统”。
<ref name ="Marshall1967">
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
{{cite book
{{cite book
| last1 = McLuhan
| last1 = McLuhan
| first1 = Marshall
| first1 = Marshall
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-link =
| editor1-link =
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2014
| date = 2014
| page = 74
| page = 74
| isbn = 9781134393145
| isbn = 9781134393145
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
}}
}}
</ref>
</ref>
* 19世纪，研究[[热力学 thermodynamics]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺 Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]]开创了[[自然科学 natural science]]中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机 steam engine]]的“工作介质 working substance”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。
* 19世纪，研究[[热力学 thermodynamics]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺 Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]]开创了[[自然科学 natural science]]中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机 steam engine]]的“工作介质 working substance”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。