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The term counterfactual conditional is widely used as an umbrella term for the kinds of sentences shown above. However, not all conditionals of this sort express contrary-to-fact meanings. For instance, the classic example known as the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but does not convey that its antecedent is false or unlikely.

The term counterfactual conditional is widely used as an umbrella term for the kinds of sentences shown above. However, not all conditionals of this sort express contrary-to-fact meanings. For instance, the classic example known as the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but does not convey that its antecedent is false or unlikely.

反事实条件这个术语被广泛地用作上面所显示的各种句子的总称。然而，并非所有这类条件句都表达与事实相反的意思。例如，经典的例子被称为“ Anderson 格”，它具有反事实条件的典型语法形式，但是并没有表明它的先行词是假的或者不可能的。

“反事实条件（counterfactual conditional）”这一术语被广泛用作上述各类句子的总称。然而，并非所有这类条件句都表达与事实相反的意思。例如，被称为“ Anderson 案例”的经典例子具有反事实条件的典型语法形式，但是并不表明它的先行词是假的或不可能的。

# '''Anderson Case''': If the patient had taken arsenic, he would have blue spots.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Alan |date=1951 |title=A Note on Subjunctive and Counterfactual Conditionals |journal=Analysis |volume=12 |issue = 2|pages=35–38|doi=10.1093/analys/12.2.35 }}</ref>

# '''Anderson Case''': If the patient had taken arsenic, he would have blue spots.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Alan |date=1951 |title=A Note on Subjunctive and Counterfactual Conditionals |journal=Analysis |volume=12 |issue = 2|pages=35–38|doi=10.1093/analys/12.2.35 }}</ref>

  Anderson Case: If the patient had taken arsenic, he would have blue spots.

  Anderson Case: If the patient had taken arsenic, he would have blue spots.

 

 

Such conditionals are also widely referred to as ''subjunctive conditionals'', though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it.<ref>See for instance [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e68d/612d7a93c98956e7314e0d131d90244c31f2.pdf Ippolito (2002)]: "Because ''subjunctive'' and ''indicative'' are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Also, [http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-2011-hsk-conditionals.pdf von Fintel (2011)] "The terminology is of course linguistically inept ([since] the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it."</ref> Many languages do not have a morphological [[subjunctive]] (e.g. [[Danish grammar|Danish]] and [[Dutch grammar|Dutch]]) and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. [[French grammar|French]], [[Swahili grammar|Swahili]], all [[Indo-Aryan languages]] that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iatridou |first1=Sabine |date=2000 |title=The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality |journal= Linguistic Inquiry  |volume=31 |issue = 2|pages=231–270|doi=10.1162/002438900554352 |s2cid=57570935 |url=http://lingphil.mit.edu/papers/iatridou/counterfactuality.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kaufmann |first1= Stefan |s2cid= 60598513 |date=2005 |title=Conditional predictions |journal= Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=28 |issue = 2|doi= 10.1007/s10988-005-3731-9 |at=183-184}}</ref><ref name="Conditionals"/>

Such conditionals are also widely referred to as ''subjunctive conditionals'', though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it.<ref>See for instance [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e68d/612d7a93c98956e7314e0d131d90244c31f2.pdf Ippolito (2002)]: "Because ''subjunctive'' and ''indicative'' are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Also, [http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-2011-hsk-conditionals.pdf von Fintel (2011)] "The terminology is of course linguistically inept ([since] the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it."</ref> Many languages do not have a morphological [[subjunctive]] (e.g. [[Danish grammar|Danish]] and [[Dutch grammar|Dutch]]) and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. [[French grammar|French]], [[Swahili grammar|Swahili]], all [[Indo-Aryan languages]] that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iatridou |first1=Sabine |date=2000 |title=The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality |journal= Linguistic Inquiry  |volume=31 |issue = 2|pages=231–270|doi=10.1162/002438900554352 |s2cid=57570935 |url=http://lingphil.mit.edu/papers/iatridou/counterfactuality.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kaufmann |first1= Stefan |s2cid= 60598513 |date=2005 |title=Conditional predictions |journal= Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=28 |issue = 2|doi= 10.1007/s10988-005-3731-9 |at=183-184}}</ref><ref name="Conditionals"/>

Such conditionals are also widely referred to as subjunctive conditionals, though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it. Many languages do not have a morphological subjunctive (e.g. Danish and Dutch) and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. French, Swahili, all Indo-Aryan languages that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.

Such conditionals are also widely referred to as subjunctive conditionals, though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it. Many languages do not have a morphological subjunctive (e.g. Danish and Dutch) and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. French, Swahili, all Indo-Aryan languages that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.

这种条件句也被广泛地称为虚拟条件句，尽管这个术语同样被使用者认为是用词不当。许多语言都没有形态虚拟语气。丹麦语和荷兰语)和许多有这个词的人不用它来表示这种条件句(例如:。法语，斯瓦希里语，所有的印度-雅利安语支都有虚拟语气)。此外，对于这样的条件句使用虚拟语气的语言，只有在具有特定的过去虚拟形式的情况下才会使用虚拟语气。因此，虚拟标记既不是必要的，也不足以成为这类条件句的成员。

这种条件句也被广泛地称为''虚拟条件句（subjunctive conditionals）''，尽管这个术语同样被使用者认为是用词不当<ref>See for instance [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e68d/612d7a93c98956e7314e0d131d90244c31f2.pdf Ippolito (2002)]: "Because ''subjunctive'' and ''indicative'' are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Also, [http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-2011-hsk-conditionals.pdf von Fintel (2011)] "The terminology is of course linguistically inept ([since] the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it."</ref>。许多语言都没有虚拟语气（如丹麦语和荷兰语)，许多有从句的语言也不把它用于这种条件句（如法语、斯瓦希里语、所有有从句的印度-雅利安语）。此外，只有将虚拟语气用于此类条件的语言才具有特定的过去虚拟语气形式。因此，虚拟标记既不是必要的，也不是充分的。

 

 

The terms ''counterfactual'' and ''subjunctive'' have sometimes been repurposed for more specific uses. For instance, the term "counterfactual" is sometimes applied to conditionals that express a contrary-to-fact meaning, regardless of their grammatical structure.<ref name = "lewis73" >{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |date=1973 |title= Counterfactuals |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn= 9780631224952}}</ref><ref name = "vonfintel98" /> Along similar lines, the term "subjunctive" is sometimes used to refer to conditionals that bear fake past or irrealis marking, regardless of the meaning they convey.<ref name = "lewis73" >{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |date=1973 |title= Counterfactuals |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn= 9780631224952}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khoo |first1=Justin |date=2015 |title=On Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/on-indicative-and-subjunctive-conditionals.pdf?c=phimp;idno=3521354.0015.032;format=pdf |journal=Philosophers' Imprint |volume=15 |issue=32}}</ref>

The terms ''counterfactual'' and ''subjunctive'' have sometimes been repurposed for more specific uses. For instance, the term "counterfactual" is sometimes applied to conditionals that express a contrary-to-fact meaning, regardless of their grammatical structure.<ref name = "lewis73" >{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |date=1973 |title= Counterfactuals |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn= 9780631224952}}</ref><ref name = "vonfintel98" /> Along similar lines, the term "subjunctive" is sometimes used to refer to conditionals that bear fake past or irrealis marking, regardless of the meaning they convey.<ref name = "lewis73" >{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |date=1973 |title= Counterfactuals |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn= 9780631224952}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khoo |first1=Justin |date=2015 |title=On Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/on-indicative-and-subjunctive-conditionals.pdf?c=phimp;idno=3521354.0015.032;format=pdf |journal=Philosophers' Imprint |volume=15 |issue=32}}</ref>

Recently the term X-Marked has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the extra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as O-Marked conditionals, reflecting their ordinary marking.

Recently the term X-Marked has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the extra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as O-Marked conditionals, reflecting their ordinary marking.

 

Recently the term ''X-Marked'' has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the ''ex''tra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as ''O-Marked'' conditionals, reflecting their ''o''rdinary marking.<ref>von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. [http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-iatridou-2019-x-slides.pdf Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking ] Unpublished lecture slides.</ref><ref>von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. [https://web.mit.edu/fintel/ks-x-phlip-slides.pdf X-marked desires or: What wanting and wishing crosslinguistically can tell us about the ingredients of counterfactuality ] Unpublished lecture slides.</ref><ref name="Linguistic Society of America"/>

Recently the term ''X-Marked'' has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the ''ex''tra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as ''O-Marked'' conditionals, reflecting their ''o''rdinary marking.<ref>von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. [http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-iatridou-2019-x-slides.pdf Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking ] Unpublished lecture slides.</ref><ref>von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. [https://web.mit.edu/fintel/ks-x-phlip-slides.pdf X-marked desires or: What wanting and wishing crosslinguistically can tell us about the ingredients of counterfactuality ] Unpublished lecture slides.</ref><ref name="Linguistic Society of America"/>

The ''antecedent'' of a conditional is sometimes referred to as its ''"if"-clause'' or ''protasis''. The ''consequent'' of a conditional is sometimes referred to as a ''"then"''-clause or as an apodosis.

The ''antecedent'' of a conditional is sometimes referred to as its ''"if"-clause'' or ''protasis''. The ''consequent'' of a conditional is sometimes referred to as a ''"then"''-clause or as an apodosis.

 

==Logic and semantics==

==Logic and semantics==