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{{short description|Interactions that create Earth's climate and may result in climate change}}

{{short description|Interactions that create Earth's climate and may result in climate change}}

[[File:Climate-system.jpg|thumb|The five components of the climate system all interact.|alt=|330x330px]]

[[File:Climate-system.jpg|thumb|The five components of the climate system all interact.|330x330px|链接=Special:FilePath/Climate-system.jpg]]

Earth's [[climate]] arises from the interaction of five major '''climate system''' components: the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]] (air), the [[hydrosphere]] (water), the [[cryosphere]] (ice and permafrost), the [[lithosphere]] (earth's upper rocky layer) and the [[biosphere]] (living things).{{sfn|Planton|2013|p=1451}} ''Climate'' is the average [[weather]], typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/About-climate-change-in-NSW/Climate-systems|title=Climate systems|website=climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506123249/https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/About-climate-change-in-NSW/Climate-systems|archive-date=2019-05-06|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/climate-system/earth-climate-system/|title=Earth's climate system|website=World Ocean Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-13}}</ref> Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar [[radiation]] and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

Earth's [[climate]] arises from the interaction of five major '''climate system''' components: the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]] (air), the [[hydrosphere]] (water), the [[cryosphere]] (ice and permafrost), the [[lithosphere]] (earth's upper rocky layer) and the [[biosphere]] (living things).{{sfn|Planton|2013|p=1451}} ''Climate'' is the average [[weather]], typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/About-climate-change-in-NSW/Climate-systems|title=Climate systems|website=climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506123249/https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/About-climate-change-in-NSW/Climate-systems|archive-date=2019-05-06|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/climate-system/earth-climate-system/|title=Earth's climate system|website=World Ocean Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-13}}</ref> Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar [[radiation]] and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components.

气候系统的五个组成部分都相互作用。地球的气候起源于五个主要气候系统组成部分的相互作用: 大气层(空气)、水圈(水)、冰圈(冰和永久冻土)、岩石圈(地球的上层岩石层)和生物圈(生物体)。气候是平均天气，通常持续30年，并且是由气候系统中的一系列过程决定的，比如洋流和风的模式。大气和海洋中的环流主要是由太阳辐射驱动的，并将热量从热带地区输送到太阳能量较少的地区。水循环也在整个气候系统中移动能量。此外，不同的化学元素，生命所必需的，不断循环之间的不同成分。

气候系统的五个组成部分都相互作用。地球的气候起源于五个主要气候系统组成部分的相互作用: 大气层(空气)、水圈(水)、冰圈(冰和永久冻土)、岩石圈(地球的上层岩石层)和生物圈(生物体)。气候是平均天气，通常持续30年，并且是由气候系统中的一系列过程决定的，比如洋流和风的模式。大气和海洋中的环流主要是由太阳辐射驱动的，并将热量从热带地区输送到太阳能量较少的地区。水循环也在整个气候系统中移动能量。此外，不同的化学元素，生命所必需的，不断循环之间的不同成分。

The climate system can change due to [[climate variability|internal variability]] and [[radiative forcing|external forcings]]. These external forcings can be natural, such as [[Solar activity and climate|variations in solar intensity]] and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping [[greenhouse gas]]es, mainly being emitted by people burning [[fossil fuel]]s, is causing [[global warming]]. Human activity also releases cooling [[aerosols]], but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases.{{sfn|Planton|2013|p=1451}} Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

The climate system can change due to [[climate variability|internal variability]] and [[radiative forcing|external forcings]]. These external forcings can be natural, such as [[Solar activity and climate|variations in solar intensity]] and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping [[greenhouse gas]]es, mainly being emitted by people burning [[fossil fuel]]s, is causing [[global warming]]. Human activity also releases cooling [[aerosols]], but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases.{{sfn|Planton|2013|p=1451}} Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

由于内部变异和外部强迫，气候系统可能发生变化。这些外部强迫可能是自然现象，比如太阳活动强度的变化和火山爆发，或者是人为造成的。温室气体的积累，主要是由燃烧化石燃料的人们排放的，正在导致全球变暖。人类活动也会释放冷却气溶胶，但其净效应远远小于温室气体。不同气候系统组成部分的反馈过程可以放大这些变化。

由于内部变异和外部强迫，气候系统可能发生变化。这些外部强迫可能是自然现象，比如太阳活动强度的变化和火山爆发，或者是人为造成的。温室气体的积累，主要是由燃烧化石燃料的人们排放的，正在导致全球变暖。人类活动也会释放冷却气溶胶，但其净效应远远小于温室气体。不同气候系统组成部分的反馈过程可以放大这些变化。

== Components of the climate system ==

== Components of the climate system ==

The ''atmosphere'' envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert [[nitrogen]] (78%), [[oxygen]] (21%) and [[argon]] (0.9%).<ref>{{harvnb|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Goosse|2015|loc=section 1.2.1}}.</ref> Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as [[water vapour]] and [[carbon dioxide]], are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are [[greenhouse gases]] which allow visible light from the [[Sun]] to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the [[infra-red]] radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise.{{sfn|Gettelman|Rood|2016|pp=14–15}} The [[hydrological cycle]] is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of [[precipitation]], it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.{{sfn|Gettelman|Rood|2016|p=16}}

The ''atmosphere'' envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert [[nitrogen]] (78%), [[oxygen]] (21%) and [[argon]] (0.9%).<ref>{{harvnb|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Goosse|2015|loc=section 1.2.1}}.</ref> Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as [[water vapour]] and [[carbon dioxide]], are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are [[greenhouse gases]] which allow visible light from the [[Sun]] to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the [[infra-red]] radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise.{{sfn|Gettelman|Rood|2016|pp=14–15}} The [[hydrological cycle]] is the movement of water through the atmosphere. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of [[precipitation]], it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.{{sfn|Gettelman|Rood|2016|p=16}}

== Flows of energy, water and elements ==

== Flows of energy, water and elements ==

[[File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Earth's atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy imbalance between the equator and the poles. It is further influenced by the [[Earth's rotation|rotation of Earth]] around its own axis.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=101}}|alt=]]

[[File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Earth's atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy imbalance between the equator and the poles. It is further influenced by the [[Earth's rotation|rotation of Earth]] around its own axis.{{sfn|Barry|Hall-McKim|2014|p=101}}|链接=Special:FilePath/NASA_depiction_of_earth_global_atmospheric_circulation.jpg]]

=== Energy and general circulation ===

=== Energy and general circulation ===

=== Biochemical cycles ===

=== Biochemical cycles ===

[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|alt=|thumb|330x330px|Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.]]

[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|thumb|330x330px|Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.|链接=Special:FilePath/Carbon_cycle.jpg]]

Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The [[carbon cycle]] is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: {{CO2}} and [[methane]].{{sfn|Goosse|2015|loc=section 2.3.1}} In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using [[photosynthesis]]; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures.{{sfn|Möller|2010|pp=123–125}} As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release {{CO2}} by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle.{{sfn|Aiuppa|Federico|Giudice|Gurrieri|2006}} As {{CO2}} in the atmosphere makes rain a bit [[acidic]], this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as ''[[weathering]]''. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form [[sedimentary rock]]s, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riebeek |first1=Holli |title=The Carbon Cycle |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/CarbonCycle |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=16 June 2011 }}</ref>

Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The [[carbon cycle]] is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: {{CO2}} and [[methane]].{{sfn|Goosse|2015|loc=section 2.3.1}} In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using [[photosynthesis]]; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures.{{sfn|Möller|2010|pp=123–125}} As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release {{CO2}} by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle.{{sfn|Aiuppa|Federico|Giudice|Gurrieri|2006}} As {{CO2}} in the atmosphere makes rain a bit [[acidic]], this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as ''[[weathering]]''. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form [[sedimentary rock]]s, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riebeek |first1=Holli |title=The Carbon Cycle |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/CarbonCycle |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=16 June 2011 }}</ref>

=== Internal variability ===

=== Internal variability ===

[[File:El-nino.png|left|thumb|330x330px|Difference between normal December [[sea surface temperature]] [°C] and temperatures during the strong El Niño of 1997. El Niño typically brings wetter weather to Mexico and the United States.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Mike |last1=Carlowicz |first2=Stephanie Schollaert |last2=Uz |title=El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ElNino |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=14 February 2017 }}</ref>]]

[[File:El-nino.png|left|thumb|330x330px|Difference between normal December [[sea surface temperature]] [°C] and temperatures during the strong El Niño of 1997. El Niño typically brings wetter weather to Mexico and the United States.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Mike |last1=Carlowicz |first2=Stephanie Schollaert |last2=Uz |title=El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ElNino |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=14 February 2017 }}</ref>|链接=Special:FilePath/El-nino.png]]

Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]] (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese [[Azores]] typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over [[Iceland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/north-atlantic-oscillation|title=North Atlantic Oscillation|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-03}}</ref> The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central [[Eurasia]].{{sfn|Chiodo|Oehrlein|Polvani|Fyfe|2019}} For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO.{{sfn|Olsen|Anderson|Knudsen|2012}} Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.{{sfn|Delworth|Zeng|Vecchi|Yang|2016}}

Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]] (NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese [[Azores]] typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over [[Iceland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/north-atlantic-oscillation|title=North Atlantic Oscillation|website=Met Office|language=en|access-date=2019-10-03}}</ref> The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central [[Eurasia]].{{sfn|Chiodo|Oehrlein|Polvani|Fyfe|2019}} For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO.{{sfn|Olsen|Anderson|Knudsen|2012}} Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.{{sfn|Delworth|Zeng|Vecchi|Yang|2016}}

大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接影响包括气溶胶可以充当云凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的自然来源包括海浪、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消温室气体排放造成的一部分变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短时间内回落到地面。

大气中的液体和固体颗粒，统称为气溶胶，对气候有不同的影响。有些主要散射阳光，从而使地球降温，而另一些则吸收阳光，使大气变暖。间接影响包括气溶胶可以充当云凝结核，刺激云的形成。气溶胶的自然来源包括海浪、矿物尘埃、陨石和火山，但人类活动也会导致火灾或化石燃料燃烧，向大气中释放气溶胶。气溶胶可以抵消温室气体排放造成的一部分变暖效应，但只能在几年或更短时间内回落到地面。

[[File:Msu 1978-2010.jpg|thumb|right|In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by [[Microwave sounding unit|MSU]] [[NASA]] satellites, effects appear from [[aerosols]] released by major volcanic eruptions ([[El&nbsp;Chichón]] and [[Mount Pinatubo|Pinatubo]]). [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El&nbsp;Niño]] is a separate event, from ocean variability.]]

[[File:Msu 1978-2010.jpg|thumb|right|In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by [[Microwave sounding unit|MSU]] [[NASA]] satellites, effects appear from [[aerosols]] released by major volcanic eruptions ([[El&nbsp;Chichón]] and [[Mount Pinatubo|Pinatubo]]). [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El&nbsp;Niño]] is a separate event, from ocean variability.|链接=Special:FilePath/Msu_1978-2010.jpg]]

Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent.{{sfn|Man|Zhou|Jungclaus|2014}} On average, there are only several [[volcanic eruptions]] per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting [[ton]]s of [[sulfur dioxide|SO₂]] into the [[stratosphere]].{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}}{{sfn|Graf|Feichter|Langmann|1997}} The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}}

Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent.{{sfn|Man|Zhou|Jungclaus|2014}} On average, there are only several [[volcanic eruptions]] per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting [[ton]]s of [[sulfur dioxide|SO₂]] into the [[stratosphere]].{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}}{{sfn|Graf|Feichter|Langmann|1997}} The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.{{sfn|Miles|Grainger|Highwood|2004}}