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在各自的繁殖季节之后，几种蜂鸟出现在北美的同一地点，而这几种蜂鸟的花同时也在这些栖息地开放。这些花聚集在共同的一个形态和颜色，因为这些形态和颜色能够有效地吸引鸟类。蜂鸟喙形态的不同决定了花冠管的长度和曲率对蜂鸟提取效率的影响。管状花朵迫使鸟类在寻找花朵时以一种特殊的方式来调整喙的方向，尤其是当喙和花冠都是弯曲的时候。这允许了植物可以把花粉携于鸟身体的某一部分，从而实现了各种形态上的协同适应。<ref name="Stiles" />

在各自的繁殖季节之后，几种蜂鸟出现在北美的同一地点，而这几种蜂鸟的花同时也在这些栖息地开放。这些花聚集在共同的一个形态和颜色，因为这些形态和颜色能够有效地吸引鸟类。蜂鸟喙形态的不同决定了花冠管的长度和曲率对蜂鸟提取效率的影响。管状花朵迫使鸟类在寻找花朵时以一种特殊的方式来调整喙的方向，尤其是当喙和花冠都是弯曲的时候。这允许了植物可以把花粉携于鸟身体的某一部分，从而实现了各种形态上的协同适应。<ref name="Stiles" />

Ornithophilous flowers need to be conspicuous to birds. Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the red end of the [[visual spectrum]],<ref name="Stiles" /> so red is particularly conspicuous to them. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet "colors". The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous (insect-pollinated) flowers warns the bird to avoid these flowers. Each of the two subfamilies of hummingbirds, the [[Phaethornithinae]] (hermits) and the [[Trochilinae]], has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethornithinae species are associated with large [[monocotyledon]]ous herbs, while the Trochilinae prefer [[dicotyledon]]ous plant species.

Ornithophilous flowers need to be conspicuous to birds. Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the red end of the [[visual spectrum]], so red is particularly conspicuous to them. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet "colors". The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous (insect-pollinated) flowers warns the bird to avoid these flowers. Each of the two subfamilies of hummingbirds, the [[Phaethornithinae]] (hermits) and the [[Trochilinae]], has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethornithinae species are associated with large [[monocotyledon]]ous herbs, while the Trochilinae prefer [[dicotyledon]]ous plant species.

<!-- could extend examples of mutualism indefinitely - might mention fish/anemone [[cleaning symbiosis]] etc.

<!-- could extend examples of mutualism indefinitely - might mention fish/anemone [[cleaning symbiosis]] etc.

[[File:Common clownfish curves dnsmpl.jpg|thumb|[[Ocellaris clownfish]] and [[Heteractis magnifica|Ritter's sea anemones]] live together in a [[mutualism (biology)|mutual]] service-service symbiosis, the fish driving off butterfly fish and the anemone's tentacles protecting the fish from predators.]]

[[File:Common clownfish curves dnsmpl.jpg|thumb|[[Ocellaris clownfish]] and [[Heteractis magnifica|Ritter's sea anemones]] live together in a [[mutualism (biology)|mutual]] service-service symbiosis, the fish driving off butterfly fish and the anemone's tentacles protecting the fish from predators.]]

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喜鸟类的花需要引起鸟的注意。<ref name="Stiles" />鸟类的视觉光谱在红色一端拥有极好的色调辨别能力和最强的光谱敏感性，所以红色对它们来说特别显眼。蜂鸟可能也可以看到紫外线的“颜色”。在缺少花蜜的昆虫传粉的花朵中，紫外线图案和花蜜的流行向导和警告鸟类避开这些花。<ref name="Stiles" />蜂鸟的每两亚科——隐蜂鸟亚科（hermits）和蜂鸟亚科的每一个亚科都与一组特定的花一同演化。大多数种类与大型单子叶植物有关，而金线菊亚科更喜欢双子叶植物。<ref name="Stiles" />

喜鸟类的花需要引起鸟的注意。<ref name="Stiles" />鸟类的视觉光谱在红色一端拥有极好的色调辨别能力和最强的光谱敏感性<ref name="Stiles" />，所以红色对它们来说特别显眼；蜂鸟可能也可以看到紫外线的“颜色”。在缺少花蜜的昆虫传粉的花朵中，紫外线图案和花蜜的流行会向导和警告鸟类去避开这些花。<ref name="Stiles" />蜂鸟的每两亚科——隐蜂鸟亚科（hermits）和蜂鸟亚科的每一个亚科都与一组特定的花一同演化。大多数种类与大型单子叶植物有关，而金线菊亚科更喜欢双子叶植物。<ref name="Stiles" />

===无花果的生殖与无花果蜂===

===无花果的生殖与无花果蜂===

[[File:Ficus plant.jpg|thumb|left|一颗[[Common fig|无花果树]] 露出它许多细小的结种成熟[[gynoecia|雌蕊群]]。它们被无花果蜂''[[Blastophaga psenes]]''授粉，在 栽培的无花果树中也有无性 品种。<ref name=Suleman/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ficus_plant.jpg]]

[[File:Ficus plant.jpg|thumb|left|一颗[[Common fig|无花果树]] 露出它许多细小的结种成熟[[gynoecia|雌蕊群]]。它们被无花果蜂''[[Blastophaga psenes]]''授粉，在 栽培的无花果树中也有无性 品种。<ref name=Suleman/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ficus_plant.jpg]]

{{Main|Reproductive coevolution in Ficus}}

{{Main|Reproductive coevolution in Ficus}}

The genus ''[[Ficus]]'' is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, including the cultivated fig, defined by their [[syconium]]s, the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. Each fig species has its own [[fig wasp]] which (in most cases) pollinates the fig, so a tight mutual dependence has evolved and persisted throughout the genus.

The genus ''[[Ficus]]'' is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, including the cultivated fig, defined by their [[syconium]]s, the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. Each fig species has its own [[fig wasp]] which (in most cases) pollinates the fig, so a tight mutual dependence has evolved and persisted throughout the genus.花的容器，里面装着雌花或花粉

榕属植物由800种藤本植物、灌木和乔木组成，其中包括栽培的无花果。每一种榕树都有自己的榕小蜂(在大多数情况下)为榕小蜂授粉，所以这个属中形成了一种紧密的相互依赖关系。<ref name="Suleman">{{cite journal |last1=Suleman |first1=Nazia |last2=Sait |first2=Steve |last3=Compton |first3=Stephen G. |title=Female figs as traps: Their impact on the dynamics of an experimental fig tree-pollinator-parasitoid community |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=62 |year=2015 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.actao.2014.11.001 |bibcode=2015AcO....62....1S|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/85568/7/Female%20plants%20as%20traps%20paper%20%283%29.pdf }}</ref>

''榕''属植物由800种藤本植物、灌木和乔木构成，其中包括栽培的无花果、由它们可以保持雌花和花粉在其中的果实状萼的榕果所定义。每一种榕树都有自己的榕小蜂（在大多数情况下）为榕树授粉，由此一种贯穿于这个属中紧密的相互依赖关系已然形成并持续存在。<ref name="Suleman">{{cite journal |last1=Suleman |first1=Nazia |last2=Sait |first2=Steve |last3=Compton |first3=Stephen G. |title=Female figs as traps: Their impact on the dynamics of an experimental fig tree-pollinator-parasitoid community |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=62 |year=2015 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.actao.2014.11.001 |bibcode=2015AcO....62....1S|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/85568/7/Female%20plants%20as%20traps%20paper%20%283%29.pdf }}</ref>

[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb|right|''拟家蚁''和为其供给蛋白质的贝尔特体在牛角金合欢（''[[Vachellia cornigera]]''）上<ref name="Hölldobler-532"/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg]]

[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb|right|''拟家蚁''和为其供给蛋白质的贝尔特体在牛角金合欢（''[[Vachellia cornigera]]''）上<ref name="Hölldobler-532"/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg]]