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===被子植物===

===被子植物===

花朵在化石记录中比较突发地出现和多样化，创造了被[[Charles Darwin|查尔斯 · 达尔文]]描述为如此迅速进化的“令人憎恶的神秘”，他考虑是否可以以共同演化作为解释；<ref>{{cite journal |author=Friedman, W. E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's 'abominable mystery' |journal=Am. J. Bot. |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/96/1/5.full |pmid=21628174}}</ref>他可能在''[[On the Origin of Species|物种起源]]''中首次提到了共同演化，并在''[[Fertilisation of Orchids|兰花的传粉]]''（1862）中进一步发展了这个概念。<ref name="CardinalDanforth2013" /><ref name="t24">{{cite book |first=John N. |last=Thompson |title=The coevolutionary process |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-226-79760-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AyXPQzEwqPIC&q=Wallace+%22creation+by+law%22+Angr%C3%A6cum&pg=PA27 |access-date=2009-07-27}}</ref><ref name="origins94">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |edition=1st |location=London |publisher=John Murray |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date=2009-02-07}}</ref><ref name="orchids1">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |year=1877 |title=On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing |location=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=2nd |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F801&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date=2009-07-27}}</ref>

花朵在化石记录中比较突发地出现和多样化，创造了被[[wikipedia:Charles_Darwin|查尔斯 · 达尔文]]描述为如此迅速进化的“令人憎恶的神秘”，他考虑是否可以以共同演化作为解释；<ref>{{cite journal |author=Friedman, W. E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's 'abominable mystery' |journal=Am. J. Bot. |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/96/1/5.full |pmid=21628174}}</ref>他可能在''[[wikipedia:On_the_Origin_of_Species|物种起源]]''中首次提到了共同演化，并在''[[wikipedia:Fertilisation_of_Orchids|兰花的传粉]]''（1862）中进一步发展了这个概念。<ref name="CardinalDanforth2013" /><ref name="t24">{{cite book |first=John N. |last=Thompson |title=The coevolutionary process |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-226-79760-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AyXPQzEwqPIC&q=Wallace+%22creation+by+law%22+Angr%C3%A6cum&pg=PA27 |access-date=2009-07-27}}</ref><ref name="origins94">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |edition=1st |location=London |publisher=John Murray |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date=2009-02-07}}</ref><ref name="orchids1">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |year=1877 |title=On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing |location=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=2nd |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F801&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date=2009-07-27}}</ref>

====昆虫和昆虫传粉的花朵====

====昆虫和昆虫传粉的花朵====

[[File:Apis mellifera - Melilotus albus - Keila.jpg|thumb|蜜蜂在白草木犀属花朵的花粉筐中采集花粉并获得奖励花蜜|链接=Special:FilePath/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg|238x238像素]]

[[File:Apis mellifera - Melilotus albus - Keila.jpg|thumb|蜜蜂在白草木犀属花朵的花粉筐中采集花粉并获得奖励花蜜|链接=Special:FilePath/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg|238x238像素]]

现代[[entomophily|昆虫传粉（虫媒）的花朵]]明显与昆虫相互适应以确保授粉，并以花蜜和花粉回馈[[pollinator|授粉者]]；这两组群体已经共同演化了超过1亿年，创造了一个复杂的互动网络；它们要么一同演化，要么在后期的某些阶段一同演化——并很可能伴随着预适应，在之后达到了如此充分的相互适应性。<ref name="Lunau">{{cite journal |last1=Lunau |first1=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Pollan, Michael |title=The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7475-6300-6 |title-link=The Botany of Desire |year=2003}}</ref>

现代[[wikipedia:Entomophily|昆虫传粉（虫媒）的花朵]]明显与昆虫相互适应以确保授粉，并以花蜜和花粉回馈[[wikipedia:Pollinator|授粉者]]；这两组群体已经共同演化了超过1亿年，创造了一个复杂的互动网络；它们要么一同演化，要么在后期的某些阶段一同演化——并很可能伴随着预适应，在之后达到了如此充分的相互适应性。<ref name="Lunau">{{cite journal |last1=Lunau |first1=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Pollan, Michael |title=The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7475-6300-6 |title-link=The Botany of Desire |year=2003}}</ref>

一些非常成功的[[insect|昆虫]]群体——尤其是[[Hymenoptera|膜翅目]]（黄蜂、蜜蜂和蚂蚁）和[[Lepidoptera|鳞翅目]]（蝴蝶和飞蛾）以及许多种[[Diptera|双翅目]]（苍蝇）和[[Coleoptera|鞘翅目]]（甲虫）——在[[Cretaceous|白垩纪]]（1.45亿至6.6亿年前）与[[flowering plant|被子植物]]共同演化；最早的蜜蜂，今天重要的传粉者，出现在白垩纪早期。<ref name="Bristol">{{cite web |title=Coevolution of angiosperms and insects |url=http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Angiosperms/coevolution.htm |publisher=University of Bristol Palaeobiology Research Group |access-date=16 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220033247/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Angiosperms/coevolution.htm |archive-date=20 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>一群与蜜蜂相[[sister clade|近亲]]的黄蜂与被子植物同时演化，鳞翅目也是如此；<ref name="Bristol" />此外，所有主要的蜜蜂[[clade|分支种系]]均首次出现在白垩纪中到晚期间，同时出现的是[[eudicots|真双子叶植物]]的辐射适应（占所有被子植物的四分之三） ，正当被子植物成为世界上陆地的主要植物时。<ref name="CardinalDanforth2013">{{cite journal |last1=Cardinal |first1=Sophie |last2=Danforth |first2=Bryan N. |title=Bees diversified in the age of eudicots |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |date=2013 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.2686 |volume=280 |issue=1755 |pages=20122686 |pmid=23363629 |pmc=3574388}}</ref>

一些非常成功的[[wikipedia:Insect|昆虫]]群体——尤其是[[wikipedia:Hymenoptera|膜翅目]]（黄蜂、蜜蜂和蚂蚁）和[[wikipedia:Lepidoptera|鳞翅目]]（蝴蝶和飞蛾）以及许多种[[wikipedia:Diptera|双翅目]]（苍蝇）和[[wikipedia:Coleoptera|鞘翅目]]（甲虫）——在[[Cretaceous|白垩纪]]（1.45亿至6.6亿年前）与[[flowering plant|被子植物]]共同演化；最早的蜜蜂，今天重要的传粉者，出现在白垩纪早期。<ref name="Bristol">{{cite web |title=Coevolution of angiosperms and insects |url=http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Angiosperms/coevolution.htm |publisher=University of Bristol Palaeobiology Research Group |access-date=16 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220033247/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Angiosperms/coevolution.htm |archive-date=20 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>一群与蜜蜂相[[sister clade|近亲]]的黄蜂与被子植物同时演化，鳞翅目也是如此；<ref name="Bristol" />此外，所有主要的蜜蜂[[clade|分支种系]]均首次出现在白垩纪中到晚期间，同时出现的是[[eudicots|真双子叶植物]]的辐射适应（占所有被子植物的四分之三） ，正当被子植物成为世界上陆地的主要植物时。<ref name="CardinalDanforth2013">{{cite journal |last1=Cardinal |first1=Sophie |last2=Danforth |first2=Bryan N. |title=Bees diversified in the age of eudicots |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |date=2013 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.2686 |volume=280 |issue=1755 |pages=20122686 |pmid=23363629 |pmc=3574388}}</ref>

被子植物的花至少在三个方面呈现出和昆虫的共同演化，因为它们涉及到了这些有机体之间的交流；首先，花朵通过气味与它们的传粉者交流，昆虫通过这种气味来确定与一朵花的距离和靠近它，并决定在哪落足以及到最后在哪觅食；其次，吸引昆虫的花纹和图案导向花蜜和花粉的奖励，而蓝色和紫外线等色调则面向视觉灵敏的诱导授粉的目标；与此相对的是，通过鸟类传粉的花朵会更倾向于是红色或橙色的；再次，像[[Ophrys|某些兰花]]这样的花朵会模仿某些昆虫的雌性，欺骗雄性进入[[pseudocopulation|拟交配]]。<ref name="Bristol" /><ref name="Pijl">{{cite book |first1=Leendert |last1=van der Pijl |first2=Calaway H. |last2=Dodson |title=Orchid Flowers: Their Pollination and Evolution |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Chapter 11: Mimicry and Deception |publisher=[[University of Miami]] Press |location=Coral Gables |year=1966 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl/page/129 129–141] |isbn=978-0-87024-069-0}}</ref>

被子植物的花至少在三个方面呈现出和昆虫的共同演化，因为它们涉及到了这些有机体之间的交流；首先，花朵通过气味与它们的传粉者交流，昆虫通过这种气味来确定与一朵花的距离和靠近它，并决定在哪落足以及到最后在哪觅食；其次，吸引昆虫的花纹和图案导向花蜜和花粉的奖励，而蓝色和紫外线等色调则面向视觉灵敏的诱导授粉的目标；与此相对的是，通过鸟类传粉的花朵会更倾向于是红色或橙色的；再次，像[[Ophrys|某些兰花]]这样的花朵会模仿某些昆虫的雌性，欺骗雄性进入[[pseudocopulation|拟交配]]。<ref name="Bristol" /><ref name="Pijl">{{cite book |first1=Leendert |last1=van der Pijl |first2=Calaway H. |last2=Dodson |title=Orchid Flowers: Their Pollination and Evolution |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Chapter 11: Mimicry and Deception |publisher=[[University of Miami]] Press |location=Coral Gables |year=1966 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl/page/129 129–141] |isbn=978-0-87024-069-0}}</ref>