(2) 当观测函数不是[[正交基]]时(通用情形):我们需要考虑 Gram 矩阵 <math>\mathbf{G}</math> 的贡献<ref name=williams_2015>Williams, M. O., Kevrekidis, I. G., & Rowley, C. W. (2015). A Data–Driven Approximation of the Koopman Operator: Extending DMD. Journal of Nonlinear Science, 25(6), 1307-1346.</ref>: