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→Challenges
==Challenges==
==Challenges==
==挑战==
Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges.<ref name="MCSS">Conte, Rosaria, et al. "[https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1140%252Fepjst%252Fe2012-01697-8.pdf Manifesto of computational social science]." The European Physical Journal Special Topics 214.1 (2012): 325-346.</ref> These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society.
Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges.<ref name="MCSS">Conte, Rosaria, et al. "[https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1140%252Fepjst%252Fe2012-01697-8.pdf Manifesto of computational social science]." The European Physical Journal Special Topics 214.1 (2012): 325-346.</ref> These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society.
计算社会科学，和其他研究领域一样，面临着一系列的挑战。 [38]需要有意义地处理这些挑战，以便对社会产生最大的影响。
===Levels and their interactions===
===Levels and their interactions===
=== 层级及其相互作用 ===
Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc.<ref name="MCSS" />
Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc.<ref name="MCSS" />
形成的每个社会往往处于一个或另一个层级，并且在这些层级之间存在着相互作用。 层级并不仅仅是指微观层面或者宏观层面。 一个社会可以存在一些中间层次，比如群体、网络、社区等等。
The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels?
The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels?
然而，问题是如何确定这些层级以及是如何产生的？ 一旦层级存在，它们如何在内部与其他层级产生相互作用？
If we view entities (agents) as nodes and the connections between them as the edges, we see the formation of networks. The connections in these networks do not come about based on just objective relationships between the entities, rather they are decided upon by factors chosen by the participating entities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Egu´ıluz|first1=V. M.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=M. G.|last3=Cela-Conde|first3=C. J.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=American Journal of Sociology|issue=2005|pages=110, 977}}</ref> The challenge with this process is that, it is difficult to identify when a set of entities will form a network. These networks may be of trust networks, co-operation networks, dependence networks etc. There have been cases where heterogeneous set of entities have shown to form strong and meaningful networks among themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sichman|first1=J. S.|last2=Conte|first2=R.|title=Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory|issue=2002|pages=8(2)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ehrhardt|first1=G.|last2=Marsili|first2=M.|last3=Vega-Redondo|first3=F.|title=Physical Review E|issue=2006|pages=74(3)}}</ref>
If we view entities (agents) as nodes and the connections between them as the edges, we see the formation of networks. The connections in these networks do not come about based on just objective relationships between the entities, rather they are decided upon by factors chosen by the participating entities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Egu´ıluz|first1=V. M.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=M. G.|last3=Cela-Conde|first3=C. J.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=American Journal of Sociology|issue=2005|pages=110, 977}}</ref> The challenge with this process is that, it is difficult to identify when a set of entities will form a network. These networks may be of trust networks, co-operation networks, dependence networks etc. There have been cases where heterogeneous set of entities have shown to form strong and meaningful networks among themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sichman|first1=J. S.|last2=Conte|first2=R.|title=Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory|issue=2002|pages=8(2)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ehrhardt|first1=G.|last2=Marsili|first2=M.|last3=Vega-Redondo|first3=F.|title=Physical Review E|issue=2006|pages=74(3)}}</ref>
If we view entities (agents) as nodes and the connections between them as the edges, we see the formation of networks. The connections in these networks do not come about based on just objective relationships between the entities, rather they are decided upon by factors chosen by the participating entities.[39] The challenge with this process is that, it is difficult to identify when a set of entities will form a network. These networks may be of trust networks, co-operation networks, dependence networks etc. There have been cases where heterogeneous set of entities have shown to form strong and meaningful networks among themselves.[40][41]
如果我们把实体(主体)看作节点，把它们之间的连接看作连边，就可以看到网络的形成。这些网络中的连接并非基于实体之间的客观存在的连线，而是由这些选择实体的因素决定的。 [39]这个过程的挑战在于，很难确定一组实体何时形成网络。 这些网络可以是信任网络、合作网络、依赖网络等。 在一些情况下，异质性实体之间也能形成强大而有意义的网络。 [41]
As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link<ref>Billari, Francesco C. [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Tc8iL0b-OycC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22Agent-based+computational+modelling:+applications+in+demography,+social,+economic+and+environmental+sciences%22&ots=6MNVK7JP-e&sig=-o_iS9zCK3r-t1eHn3554UVadUs Agent-based computational modelling: applications in demography, social, economic and environmental sciences]. Taylor & Francis, 2006.</ref> refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed?
As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link<ref>Billari, Francesco C. [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Tc8iL0b-OycC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22Agent-based+computational+modelling:+applications+in+demography,+social,+economic+and+environmental+sciences%22&ots=6MNVK7JP-e&sig=-o_iS9zCK3r-t1eHn3554UVadUs Agent-based computational modelling: applications in demography, social, economic and environmental sciences]. Taylor & Francis, 2006.</ref> refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed?
As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link[42] refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed?
正如前面所讨论的，社会中有层级，由微观层面的个人层级，通过微观和宏观之间的相互作用可以产生更高的层级。 针对这样微观-宏观之间的连接有一系列的问题需要回答：它们是如何形成的？它们什么时候会收敛？被推到了较低的层次会有什么样的反馈，以及它们是如何被推动的？
Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult.
Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult.
针对这个主题下的另一个主要挑战即是验证信息的有效性及其追溯信息的来源。 近年来，信息收集和处理蓬勃发展，然而，人们很少关注社会之间虚假信息的传播。因为追溯资料来源并找到这些资料的所有权是很困难的。
===Culture modeling===
===Culture modeling===
=== 文化建模 ===
The evolution of the networks and levels in the society brings about cultural diversity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Centola|first1=D.|last2=Gonz´alez-Avella|first2=J. C.|last3=Egu´ıluz|first3=V. M.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=Journal of Conflict Resolution|issue=2007|pages=51}}</ref> A thought which arises however is that, when people tend to interact and become more accepting of other cultures and beliefs, how is it that diversity still persists? Why is there no convergence? A major challenge is how to model these diversities. Are there external factors like mass media, locality of societies etc. which influence the evolution or persistence of cultural diversities?{{Citation needed|reason=Sounds just like personal thoughts|date=May 2017}}
The evolution of the networks and levels in the society brings about cultural diversity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Centola|first1=D.|last2=Gonz´alez-Avella|first2=J. C.|last3=Egu´ıluz|first3=V. M.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=Journal of Conflict Resolution|issue=2007|pages=51}}</ref> A thought which arises however is that, when people tend to interact and become more accepting of other cultures and beliefs, how is it that diversity still persists? Why is there no convergence? A major challenge is how to model these diversities. Are there external factors like mass media, locality of societies etc. which influence the evolution or persistence of cultural diversities?{{Citation needed|reason=Sounds just like personal thoughts|date=May 2017}}
The evolution of the networks and levels in the society brings about cultural diversity.[43] A thought which arises however is that, when people tend to interact and become more accepting of other cultures and beliefs, how is it that diversity still persists? Why is there no convergence? A major challenge is how to model these diversities. Are there external factors like mass media, locality of societies etc. which influence the evolution or persistence of cultural diversities?
在社会中，网络和层级的演化会带来文化的多样性。 [43]因此，自然而然的一个想法是，当人们倾向于交流，变得更能接受其他文化和信仰时，为什么多样性仍然存在？ 为什么没有趋同？针对这个问题的一个主要挑战就是如何对多样性建模。 比如是否存在诸如大众传媒、社会地域属性等外部因素会影响文化多样性的演化或持续？
===Experimentation and evaluation===
===Experimentation and evaluation===
=== 实验和评估 ===
Any study or modelling when combined with experimentation needs to be able to address the questions being asked. [[Computational social science]] deals with large scale data and the challenge becomes much more evident as the scale grows. How would one design informative simulations on a large scale? And even if a large scale simulation is brought up, how is the evaluation supposed to be performed?
Any study or modelling when combined with experimentation needs to be able to address the questions being asked. [[Computational social science]] deals with large scale data and the challenge becomes much more evident as the scale grows. How would one design informative simulations on a large scale? And even if a large scale simulation is brought up, how is the evaluation supposed to be performed?
Any study or modelling when combined with experimentation needs to be able to address the questions being asked. Computational social science deals with large scale data and the challenge becomes much more evident as the scale grows. How would one design informative simulations on a large scale? And even if a large scale simulation is brought up, how is the evaluation supposed to be performed?
任何与实验结合的研究或建模都需要能够解决所提出的问题。计算社会科学能够处理大规模的数据，但是随着规模的增长挑战也越来越大。如何设计一个大规模的信息模拟？即使提出了一个大规模的模拟，评估应该如何进行？
===Model choice and model complexities===
===Model choice and model complexities===
=== 模型选择和模型复杂度 ===
Another challenge is identifying the models that would best fit the data and the complexities of these models. These models would help us predict how societies might evolve over time and provide possible explanations on how things work.<ref>Weisberg, Michael. [http://www.academia.edu/download/30604870/lessmorefinal.pdf When less is more: Tradeoffs and idealization in model building]. Diss. Stanford University, 2003.</ref>
Another challenge is identifying the models that would best fit the data and the complexities of these models. These models would help us predict how societies might evolve over time and provide possible explanations on how things work.<ref>Weisberg, Michael. [http://www.academia.edu/download/30604870/lessmorefinal.pdf When less is more: Tradeoffs and idealization in model building]. Diss. Stanford University, 2003.</ref>
Another challenge is identifying the models that would best fit the data and the complexities of these models. These models would help us predict how societies might evolve over time and provide possible explanations on how things work.[44]
另一个挑战是确定最适合数据，且复杂度合适的模型。这些模型将帮助我们预测随着时间的推移社会将如何演化，并为事物如何运作提供可能的解释。 [44]
====Generative models====
====Generative models====
==== 生成模型 ====
Generative models helps us to perform extensive qualitative analysis in a controlled fashion. A model proposed by Epstein, is the agent-based simulation, which talks about identifying an initial set of heterogeneous entities (agents) and observe their evolution and growth based on simple local rules.<ref>Epstein, Joshua M. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Jones14/publication/283615593_Book_Review_-_Generative_Social_Science_Studies_in_Agent-Based_Computational_Modeling/links/5641398808aebaaea1f70216.pdf Generative social science: Studies in agent-based computational modeling]. Princeton University Press, 2006.</ref>
Generative models helps us to perform extensive qualitative analysis in a controlled fashion. A model proposed by Epstein, is the agent-based simulation, which talks about identifying an initial set of heterogeneous entities (agents) and observe their evolution and growth based on simple local rules.<ref>Epstein, Joshua M. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Jones14/publication/283615593_Book_Review_-_Generative_Social_Science_Studies_in_Agent-Based_Computational_Modeling/links/5641398808aebaaea1f70216.pdf Generative social science: Studies in agent-based computational modeling]. Princeton University Press, 2006.</ref>
But what are these local rules? How does one identify them for a set of heterogeneous agents? Evaluation and impact of these rules state a whole new set of difficulties.
But what are these local rules? How does one identify them for a set of heterogeneous agents? Evaluation and impact of these rules state a whole new set of difficulties.
Generative models helps us to perform extensive qualitative analysis in a controlled fashion. A model proposed by Epstein, is the agent-based simulation, which talks about identifying an initial set of heterogeneous entities (agents) and observe their evolution and growth based on simple local rules.[45]
But what are these local rules? How does one identify them for a set of heterogeneous agents? Evaluation and impact of these rules state a whole new set of difficulties.
生成模型帮助我们以一种受控的方式进行广泛的定性分析。爱泼斯坦 Epstein提出的一个模型是基于主体的模拟，该模型通过识别一组初始的异质实体(主体) ，并根据简单的局部规则观察它们的演化和增长。 [45]
但是这些局部的规则是什么呢？ 如何在一组异质的主体中识别它们？ 这些规则的评估和影响提出是一系列新的难点。
====Heterogeneous or ensemble models====
====Heterogeneous or ensemble models====
==== 异质模型或者集成模型 ====
~~Heterogeneous or ensemble models 不确定这个翻译对不对~~
Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into{{Citation needed|reason=unsupported claims|date=May 2017}}. These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data. However the trade-off of identifying and having a deep understanding of the interactions between these simple models arises when one needs to come up with one combined, well performing model. Also, coming up with tools and applications to help analyse and visualize the data based on these hybrid models is another added challenge.
Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into{{Citation needed|reason=unsupported claims|date=May 2017}}. These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data. However the trade-off of identifying and having a deep understanding of the interactions between these simple models arises when one needs to come up with one combined, well performing model. Also, coming up with tools and applications to help analyse and visualize the data based on these hybrid models is another added challenge.
Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into[citation needed]. These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data. However the trade-off of identifying and having a deep understanding of the interactions between these simple models arises when one needs to come up with one combined, well performing model. Also, coming up with tools and applications to help analyse and visualize the data based on these hybrid models is another added challenge.
集成那些在单个任务中表现更好的简单模型来形成一个混合模型是一种可以探索的好的研究方法[需要引用]。 这些模型可以提供更好的预测效果和并且增强对数据的理解。 然而这里需要在效果和可解释性之间做权衡，当需要提出一个组合的、性能良好的模型时，也需要识别并深入理解这些简单模型之间的相互作用。此外，开发工具和应用程序来帮助分析和可视化基于这些混合模型的数据是另一个额外的挑战。