“系统论”的版本间的差异

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==分析 Analysis==
 
==分析 Analysis==
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有许多类型的系统，可以进行[[定量分析|定量]]和[[定性分析|定性]]分析。例如，在城市[[系统动力学|系统动力学]]分析中，A.W.斯泰斯<ref>Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</ref>定义了5个交叉系统，包括物质系统和行为系统。对于受系统理论影响的社会学模型，[[Kenneth D. Bailey(社会学家)|Kenneth D. Bailey]]<ref>Bailey, 1994.</ref>用[[概念系统|概念化]]、[[具象（哲学）|具象化]]和抽象化的系统来定义系统，包括[[孤立系统]]、[[封闭系统]]和[[开放系统]]。[[Walter F. Buckley]]在社会学中将系统定义为机械的、有机的和过程的模型。[[Bela H. Banathy]]<ref>Banathy, 1997.</ref>提醒道，了解系统的类型对于任何系统的调研都至关重要，并定义了“自然”和“设计” ，例如人工, 系统。
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There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] and [[Qualitative research|qualitatively]]. For example, in an analysis of urban [[System dynamics|systems dynamics]], A .W. Steiss<ref>Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</ref> defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]]<ref>Bailey, 1994.</ref> defined systems in terms of [[conceptual system|conceptual]], [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], and abstract systems, either [[Isolated system|isolated]], [[Closed system|closed]], or [[Open system (systems theory)|open]]. [[Walter F. Buckley]]<ref>Buckley, 1967.</ref> defined systems in sociology in terms of [[Mechanics|mechanical]], [[organic (model)|organic]], and [[process modeling|process]] models. [[Bela H. Banathy]]<ref>Banathy, 1997.</ref> cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
 
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] and [[Qualitative research|qualitatively]]. For example, in an analysis of urban [[System dynamics|systems dynamics]], A .W. Steiss<ref>Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</ref> defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, [[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]]<ref>Bailey, 1994.</ref> defined systems in terms of [[conceptual system|conceptual]], [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], and abstract systems, either [[Isolated system|isolated]], [[Closed system|closed]], or [[Open system (systems theory)|open]]. [[Walter F. Buckley]]<ref>Buckley, 1967.</ref> defined systems in sociology in terms of [[Mechanics|mechanical]], [[organic (model)|organic]], and [[process modeling|process]] models. [[Bela H. Banathy]]<ref>Banathy, 1997.</ref> cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
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There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
 
There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.
  
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有许多类型的系统，可以进行定量和定性分析。例如，在城市系统动力学分析中，a。斯泰斯定义了5个交叉系统，包括物质系统和行为系统。对于受系统理论影响的社会学模型，Kenneth d. Bailey 用概念化、具体化和抽象化的系统来定义系统，无论是孤立的、封闭的还是开放的。巴克利在社会学中将系统定义为机械的、有机的和过程模型。贝拉 · h · 班纳西警告说，对于任何对一个系统的调查来说，了解它的类型是至关重要的，并定义了“自然”和“设计” ，即人工的系统。
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应避免混淆这些抽象定义。例如，自然系统包括亚原子系统、[[生命系统]]、[[太阳系统]]、[[星系]]和[[宇宙]]，而人造系统包括人造物理结构、自然系统和人造系统的混合体、以及概念知识。组织和功能中的人的因素在其相关的抽象系统和表现形式中得以强调。系统在选择其目的、目标、方法、工具等方面的自由程度及其选择分布或集中的自由程度，是区分不同系统的一个主要考虑因素。
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It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions.  For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, [[living systems theory|living systems]], the [[solar system]], [[Galaxy|galaxies]], and the [[Universe]], while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = How can a system select goals, etc.?  Most systems are not self-aware or self describing.  What does concentrated or disturbed mean in this context?}}
 
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions.  For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, [[living systems theory|living systems]], the [[solar system]], [[Galaxy|galaxies]], and the [[Universe]], while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = How can a system select goals, etc.?  Most systems are not self-aware or self describing.  What does concentrated or disturbed mean in this context?}}
  
 
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions.  For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.
 
It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions.  For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.
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重要的是不要混淆这些抽象的定义。例如，自然系统包括亚原子系统、生命系统、太阳系统、星系和宇宙，而人造系统包括人造物理结构、自然系统和人造系统的混合体以及概念知识。强调组织和功能的人的因素及其相关的抽象系统和表现形式。区分不同系统的一个主要考虑因素是确定系统在选择其目的、目标、方法、工具等方面有多大的自由度。以及选择分布或集中的自由程度。
 
  
  
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人工系统有一个先天的重大缺陷: 它们必须以一个或多个基本假设为前提，而这些基本假设又是额外知识的基础。{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = Needs clearer explanation. e.g., what are the fundamental assumptions involved in a hammer, or a refrigerator.  What makes a man-made dam system different from a beaver dam in this context?}}{{citation needed|date = June 2019}}这些基本假设本质上无害，但是它们必须被定义为真，而如果它们实际是假，那么该系统在结构上并不如假设那般完备。例如在[[几何学]]中，这种缺陷在[[定理]]的基础假设和定理外推的证明中是非常明显的。
  
 
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = Needs clearer explanation. e.g., what are the fundamental assumptions involved in a hammer, or a refrigerator.  What makes a man-made dam system different from a beaver dam in this context?}}{{citation needed|date = June 2019}} These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in [[geometry]] this is very evident in the postulation of [[theorem]]s and extrapolation of proofs from them.
 
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.{{clarify|date=June 2019|reason = Needs clearer explanation. e.g., what are the fundamental assumptions involved in a hammer, or a refrigerator.  What makes a man-made dam system different from a beaver dam in this context?}}{{citation needed|date = June 2019}} These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in [[geometry]] this is very evident in the postulation of [[theorem]]s and extrapolation of proofs from them.
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Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.
 
Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.
  
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人工系统天生就有一个重大缺陷: 它们必须以一个或多个基本假设为前提，而这些基本假设又是额外知识的基础。这些基本假设本质上并不是有害的，但是它们必须被定义为真，如果它们实际上是假的，那么这个系统在结构上并不像假设的那样是完整的。例如，在几何学中，这在定理的假设和从定理中证明的外推中是非常明显的。
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[[George J. Klir]]<ref>Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72</ref>认为无论如何都不存在“完全和完美的分类” ，并将系统定义为抽象的、[[真实|真实的]]和[[概念性系统|概念的]][[物理系统]]、有界的和[[无界的系统]]、离散的到连续的系统、脉冲的到混合的系统等。系统与其环境之间的交互可分为相对封闭系统和[[开放系统]]。一个绝对封闭的系统似乎不太可能存在，即使存在，也不太可能为人所知。在“硬”系统和“软”系统之间也有重要的区别<ref>Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.</ref> ，“硬”系统在自然界是技术性的，可以适应诸如[[系统工程]]、[[运筹学]]和定量系统分析等方法，“软”系统涉及人和组织，通常与[[Peter Checkland]]和 [[Brian Wilson (系统科学家)|Brian Wilson]]通过[[软体系统方法论]]（SSM）开发的概念相关，包括诸如[[行动研究]]和强调参与式设计等方法。在硬系统可能被认为更“科学”的领域，两者的区别往往是暧昧的。
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George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
 
George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.
  
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George j. Klir 认为没有“完全和完美的分类” ，并将系统定义为抽象的、真实的和概念性的物理系统、有界的和无界的系统、离散到连续的系统、脉冲到混合系统等。系统与其环境之间的交互可分为相对封闭和开放的系统。一个绝对封闭的系统似乎不太可能存在，即使存在，也不太可能为人所知。在硬系统和软系统之间也有重要的区别，硬系统在自然界是技术性的，可以适应诸如系统工程、运筹学和定量系统分析等方法，软系统涉及人和组织，通常与 Peter Checkland 和 Brian Wilson 通过软体系统方法论开发的概念相关，包括诸如行动研究和强调参与式设计等方法。在硬系统可能被认为更“科学”的地方，它们之间的区别往往是难以捉摸的。
 
  
  
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===文化系统 Cultural system===
  
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===文化系统 Cultural system===
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文化系统可定义为不同[[文化]]要素之间的相互作用。虽然文化系统与[[社会系统]]大不相同，有时两者合在一起被称为”社会文化系统”。社会科学的一个主要关注点是[[社会秩序|秩序问题]]。
  
 
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of [[culture]]. While a cultural system is quite different from a [[social system]], sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the [[Social order|problem of order]].
 
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of [[culture]]. While a cultural system is quite different from a [[social system]], sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the [[Social order|problem of order]].
  
 
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.
 
A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.
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文化系统可以定义为不同文化要素之间的相互作用。虽然文化系统与社会系统大不相同，但有时两者合在一起被称为”社会文化系统”。社会科学的一个主要关注点是秩序问题。
 
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{{Main|Economic system}}
 
{{Main|Economic system}}
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经济制度是一种机制（[[社会制度]]），它处理一个特定[[社会]]中[[货品（经济）|货品]]和[[服务（经济）|服务]]的[[经济生产|生产]]、[[分配（商业）|分配]]和[[消费（经济）|消费]]。经济体系由[[人]]、[[制度]]及其与资源的关系组成，如[[财产]][[制度]]。它解决[[经济]]问题，例如资源的稀缺和分配。
  
 
An economic system is a mechanism ([[social institution]]) which deals with the [[Economic production|production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] in a particular [[society]]. The economic system is composed of [[person|people]], [[institutions]] and their relationships to resources, such as the [[Convention (norm)|convention]] of [[property]]. It addresses the problems of [[economics]], like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
 
An economic system is a mechanism ([[social institution]]) which deals with the [[Economic production|production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] in a particular [[society]]. The economic system is composed of [[person|people]], [[institutions]] and their relationships to resources, such as the [[Convention (norm)|convention]] of [[property]]. It addresses the problems of [[economics]], like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
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An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
 
An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
  
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经济制度是一种机制(社会制度) ，它处理一个特定社会中商品和服务的生产、分配和消费。经济体系由人、制度及其与资源的关系组成，如财产制度。它解决了经济问题，比如资源的分配和稀缺。
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几位国际关系学者，尤其是[[新现实主义学派]]的学者，从系统的角度描述和分析了互动国家的国际范围。然而，这种国际分析的系统模式受到其他国际关系思想流派的挑战，其中最显著的是[[建构主义学派]]，该学派认为，过分关注系统和结构可能忽视个人在社会互动中的作用。基于系统的国际关系模式也是[[自由制度主义]]思想学派对国际领域见解的基底，该学派更加强调由规则和交互治理，特别是经济治理所产生的系统。
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The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the [[Neorealism (international relations)|neorealist school.]] This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the [[Constructivism (international relations)|constructivist school]], which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the [[Institutional liberalism|liberal institutionalist]] school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
 
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the [[Neorealism (international relations)|neorealist school.]] This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the [[Constructivism (international relations)|constructivist school]], which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the [[Institutional liberalism|liberal institutionalist]] school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
  
 
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
 
The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.
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几位国际关系学者，尤其是新现实主义学派的学者，从系统的角度描述和分析了相互作用国家的国际领域。然而，这种国际分析的系统模式受到其他国际关系思想流派的挑战，其中最显著的是建构主义学派，该学派认为，过分关注系统和结构可能掩盖个人在社会互动中的作用。以制度为基础的国际关系模式也是自由制度主义思想学派对国际领域的看法的基础，该学派更加强调由规则和相互作用治理，特别是经济治理所产生的制度。
 
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==系统概念的应用 Application of the system concept==
 
==系统概念的应用 Application of the system concept==

2020年7月19日 (日) 00:13的版本

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

模板:Other uses

For the set of rules that govern structure or behavior of people, see Social system.

模板:Lead too short

“系统”是所构成整体中的一组相互作用或相互关联实体的集合。系统由其时空边界所描述，即被外界环境所包围、影响的时空范围；系统也由其结构和目的所描述，表达为功能。系统是系统理论的研究对象。

A system is a group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签 A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory.

</ref> A system is described by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory.


词源学 Etymology

“System”从最先的希腊语"σύστημα"及由此演变的拉丁语的"systēma"而来：由几个部分组成的整体，系统，字面为"composition"。


The term "system" comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek 脚本错误：没有“lang”这个模块。 systēma: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

</ref>

</ref >


历史 History

According to Marshall McLuhan,

According to Marshall McLuhan,

马素·麦克鲁汉:

< 引用 >

“系统”即“关注对象”，系统化需要极高的视觉梯度。而哲学上，笛卡尔之前没有“系统”，柏拉图没有“系统”，亚里士多德的也没有“系统”。


"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[1][2] < ref >

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1 = 马素·麦克鲁汉

| chapter = 4: The Hot and Cool Interview

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| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture

| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture

媒体研究: 技术、艺术与传播: 艺术、理论与文化中的批判声音

| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ

| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ

| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hzr_agaaqbaj

| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture

| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture

艺术、理论和文化中的批判声音

| publisher = Routledge

| publisher = Routledge

| publisher = Routledge

| date = 2014

| date = 2014

2014年

| page = 74

| page = 74

74

| isbn = 9781134393145

| isbn = 9781134393145

9781134393145

| accessdate = 2015-05-06

| accessdate = 2015-05-06

2015-05-06

| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'

| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'


}}

}}

}}

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19世纪，研究热力学的法国物理学家尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺开创了自然科学中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了蒸汽机的“工作介质”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯把外部环境也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。

生物学家卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非成为一般系统论的先驱之一。1945年，他提出了适用于广义系统及其子类的模型、原理和法则，不论它们的特殊类型、组成要素的性质、乃至相互之间的关系或“力”。[3]

诺伯特 · 维纳和威廉 罗斯 · 阿什比开拓性地将数学应用于系统研究，系统概念得到重大发展。< ref name ="wiener1948">

1948.《控制论: 动物与机器的控制与交流》。法国，巴黎: 赫尔曼与塞尔，剑桥，麻省: 麻省理工出版社，剑桥，麻省理工出版社。

1956.《控制论导论》 ，查普曼出版社。

20世纪80年代，John Henry Holland，默里·盖尔曼和其他等人在跨学科的圣菲研究所中创设了术语: 复杂适应性系统。


In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.[3]

The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.

Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[4][4] < ref name ="ashby1950">

1956. An Introduction to Cybernetics, Chapman & Hall.

1956. An Introduction to Cybernetics, Chapman & Hall.

1956.控制论导论》 ，查普曼 http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ashbbook.html 出版社。

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In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.

In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.

概念 Concepts

环境和边界 Environment and boundaries
系统论认为世界是一个由相互连接的部分组成的复杂系统。辨识系统的方法是定义系统的边界，即选择哪些实体位于系统内部而哪些实体在外部——环境环境的一部分。可以简化系统的表述（模型）以利理解、预测或影响其未来活动。这些模型描出了系统的结构和活动。


Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment. One can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.

Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment. One can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.


自然系统和人造系统 Natural and human-made systems

系统可分为自然系统和人造系统。自然系统可能没有明确的目的，但从观察者角度出发，自然系统的活动是所目的的。人造系统的目的各不相同，通过在系统内或与系统一起实施的动作来实现。系统的各部分是关联的，且“有意作为一个连贯实体来运作”——否则作为两个或更多而不同系统。


开放系统有输入和输出流，即物质、能量或信息与其周遭环境的交流。


There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.

There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.

文件:OpenSystemRepresentation.svg
Open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.

Open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.

理论框架 Theoretical framework
大多数系统是与与周围环境交换物质和能量的开放系统，例如汽车、咖啡机或地球。而封闭系统与其环境交换能量而非物质; 例如一台计算机或生物圈2号项目。一个孤立系统与它的环境既不交换物质也不交换能量。这种系统的一个理论例子是宇宙。
Most systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or Earth. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project Biosphere 2. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe.

Most systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or Earth. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project Biosphere 2. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe.


过程和转变过程 Process and transformation process

一个开放系统也可视为一个有界的转换过程，即一个将输入转换为输出的过程或过程集合的黑盒。输入被消耗，并产生输出。这里所说的输入和输出的概念非常广泛。例如，一艘客轮的输出是乘客从出发地向目的地的移动。

An open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.

An open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.

系统模型 System model
系统有多种视图。人造系统会具有如下等视图: 概念、分析、设计、实现、部署、结构、行为、输入数据和输出数据。系统是描述和反映所有这些视图模式的前提。
A system comprises multiple views. Man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views.

A system comprises multiple views. Man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views.


系统架构 Systems architecture
系统架构是用一个单一的集成模型来描述多种视图，是一种系统模型。
A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.

A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.



子系统 Subsystem

"子系统"是一组元素，其本身也是一个系统，同时也是一个更大系统的组成部分。IBM大型机“作业输入子系统”系列(JES1、JES2、JES3及其HASP/ASP前身)就是例子。它们共有的主要“元素”是处理输入、调度、假脱机和输出的组件; 它们还能够与本地和远程操作员交互。


A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.

A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.

子系统表述为一个系统对象，该系统对象包含定义了系统所控制操作环境的特征的信息。[5]数据测试用于验证各个子系统配置数据的准确性（例如MA长度、静态速度曲线、…），有一个单个子系统关联了这些子系统，以测试其特定应用（SA）。[6]


A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system.[7] The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).[8]

A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).

分析 Analysis

有许多类型的系统，可以进行定量和定性分析。例如，在城市系统动力学分析中，A.W.斯泰斯[9]定义了5个交叉系统，包括物质系统和行为系统。对于受系统理论影响的社会学模型，Kenneth D. Bailey[10]用概念化、具象化和抽象化的系统来定义系统，包括孤立系统、封闭系统和开放系统。Walter F. Buckley在社会学中将系统定义为机械的、有机的和过程的模型。Bela H. Banathy[11]提醒道，了解系统的类型对于任何系统的调研都至关重要，并定义了“自然”和“设计” ，例如人工, 系统。


There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss[12] defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey[13] defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley[14] defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy[15] cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.

There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.

应避免混淆这些抽象定义。例如，自然系统包括亚原子系统、生命系统、太阳系统、星系和宇宙，而人造系统包括人造物理结构、自然系统和人造系统的混合体、以及概念知识。组织和功能中的人的因素在其相关的抽象系统和表现形式中得以强调。系统在选择其目的、目标、方法、工具等方面的自由程度及其选择分布或集中的自由程度，是区分不同系统的一个主要考虑因素。

It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.模板:Clarify

It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.


人工系统有一个先天的重大缺陷: 它们必须以一个或多个基本假设为前提，而这些基本假设又是额外知识的基础。模板:Clarify[citation needed]这些基本假设本质上无害，但是它们必须被定义为真，而如果它们实际是假，那么该系统在结构上并不如假设那般完备。例如在几何学中，这种缺陷在定理的基础假设和定理外推的证明中是非常明显的。

Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.模板:Clarify[citation needed] These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.

Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.

George J. Klir[16]认为无论如何都不存在“完全和完美的分类” ，并将系统定义为抽象的、真实的和概念的物理系统、有界的和无界的系统、离散的到连续的系统、脉冲的到混合的系统等。系统与其环境之间的交互可分为相对封闭系统和开放系统。一个绝对封闭的系统似乎不太可能存在，即使存在，也不太可能为人所知。在“硬”系统和“软”系统之间也有重要的区别[17] ，“硬”系统在自然界是技术性的，可以适应诸如系统工程、运筹学和定量系统分析等方法，“软”系统涉及人和组织，通常与Peter Checkland和 Brian Wilson通过软体系统方法论（SSM）开发的概念相关，包括诸如行动研究和强调参与式设计等方法。在硬系统可能被认为更“科学”的领域，两者的区别往往是暧昧的。


George J. Klir[18] maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made[19] between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.

George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.


文化系统 Cultural system

文化系统可定义为不同文化要素之间的相互作用。虽然文化系统与社会系统大不相同，有时两者合在一起被称为”社会文化系统”。社会科学的一个主要关注点是秩序问题。

A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.

A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.


经济系统 Economic system

Main article: Economic system

经济制度是一种机制（社会制度），它处理一个特定社会中货品和服务的生产、分配和消费。经济体系由人、制度及其与资源的关系组成，如财产制度。它解决经济问题，例如资源的稀缺和分配。

An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.

An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.

几位国际关系学者，尤其是新现实主义学派的学者，从系统的角度描述和分析了互动国家的国际范围。然而，这种国际分析的系统模式受到其他国际关系思想流派的挑战，其中最显著的是建构主义学派，该学派认为，过分关注系统和结构可能忽视个人在社会互动中的作用。基于系统的国际关系模式也是自由制度主义思想学派对国际领域见解的基底，该学派更加强调由规则和交互治理，特别是经济治理所产生的系统。

The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.

The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.

系统概念的应用 Application of the system concept

Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.

Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.

系统建模是工程学和社会科学的基本原理。该系统是所关注实体的代表。因此，对系统上下文的包含或排除取决于建模者的意图。


No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.

No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.

一个系统的任何模型都不会包括真正关注系统的所有特征，一个系统的任何模型都不必包括属于真正关注系统的所有实体。


信息和电脑科学方面 In information and computer science

In computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).

In computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).

在计算机科学和信息科学中，系统是以组件为结构，以可观察的进程间通信为行为的硬件系统、软件系统或组合。再举一个例子来说明: 有计算系统，如罗马数字，和各种系统归档文件，或目录，以及各种图书馆系统，其中杜威十进制图书分类法图书馆就是一个例子。这仍然符合连接在一起的组件的定义(在这种情况下是为了方便信息流)。


System can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition [20]

System can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition

系统也可以指一个框架，也就是平台，无论是软件还是硬件，设计用来允许软件程序运行。组件或系统中的缺陷可能导致组件本身或整个系统无法执行其所需功能，例如不正确的语句或数据定义


工程和物理方面 In engineering and physics

In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.[20]

In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.

在工程学和物理学中，物理系统是正在研究的宇宙的一部分(热力学系统就是一个主要的例子)。工程学还有一个系统的概念，涉及到复杂项目的所有部分和部分之间的交互。系统工程是工程学的一个分支，研究如何规划、设计、实现、构建和维护这种类型的系统。预期的结果是指在特定条件下，部件或系统的规范或其他来源所预测的行为。


社会科学、认知科学及管理研究方面 In social and cognitive sciences and management research

Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.

Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.

社会和认知科学认可人类模型和人类社会中的系统。它们包括人类的大脑功能和心理过程，以及规范伦理学系统和社会/文化行为模式。


In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline.

In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline.

在管理科学、运筹学和组织发展学中，人类组织被看作是子系统或系统集合体等相互作用的组成部分的系统(概念系统) ，是众多复杂业务流程(组织行为)和组织结构的载体。组织发展理论家彼得 · 森吉在他的《第五纪律》一书中提出了组织作为系统的概念。


Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.

Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.

系统思考是一种思考/推理和解决问题的方式。它从识别给定问题中的系统属性开始。它可以是一种领导能力。有些人可以放眼全球，同时在当地采取行动。这些人考虑他们的决定对大系统的其他部分的潜在后果。这也是心理学系统辅导的基础。


Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.

Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.

组织理论家，如 Margaret Wheatley，也描述了组织系统在新的隐喻背景下的工作，如量子物理学，混沌理论，系统的自我组织。


纯粹逻辑系统 Pure logical systems

There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Another example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. Logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.

There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Another example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. Logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.

还有一种东西叫做逻辑系统。最明显的例子就是莱布尼茨和艾萨克 · 牛顿同时开发的微积分。另一个例子是 George Boole 的布尔运算符。其他的例子特别与哲学、生物学或认知科学有关。马斯洛的需求层次理论通过使用纯逻辑将心理学应用于生物学。许多心理学家，包括卡尔 · 荣格和西格蒙德 · 弗洛伊德，已经开发出一套系统，可以逻辑地组织心理学领域，比如人格、动机、智力和欲望。这些领域通常由一般范畴组成，这些范畴遵循一个推论，如定理。逻辑被应用于分类、本体、评估和层次结构等类别。


应用于战略思维 Applied to strategic thinking

In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced the Five Ring System model in his book, The Air Campaign, contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War.[21]引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签[22] In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.[23]

|publisher =United States Air Force}}</ref> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.

20世纪90年代末，华登将他的模型应用于商业战略。


参见 See also

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Examples of systems

Examples of systems

系统的例子

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Related topics

Related topics

相关话题

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引用 References

  1. ↑ Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.
  2. ↑ 马素·麦克鲁汉: McLuhan: Hot & Cool。埃德。作者: Gerald Emanuel Stearn。由纽约新美国图书馆出版，1967年，第288页。
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 1945, Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre, Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Ashby1950的引用提供文字
  5. ↑ IBM's definition @ http://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i5_54/rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm
  6. ↑ European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128. Brussels, Belgium: CENELEC. 2011. pp. Table A.11 – Data Préparation Techniques (8.4). 
  7. ↑ IBM's definition @ http://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i5_54/rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm
  8. ↑ European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128. Brussels, Belgium: CENELEC. 2011. pp. Table A.11 – Data Préparation Techniques (8.4). 
  9. ↑ Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.
  10. ↑ Bailey, 1994.
  11. ↑ Banathy, 1997.
  12. ↑ Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.
  13. ↑ Bailey, 1994.
  14. ↑ Buckley, 1967.
  15. ↑ Banathy, 1997.
  16. ↑ Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72
  17. ↑ Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.
  18. ↑ Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72
  19. ↑ Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing". Retrieved 15 March 2019.
  21. ↑ Warden, John A. III (1988). The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press. ISBN 978-1-58348-100-4. 
  22. ↑ Warden, John A. III (1995). "Enemy as a System". Airpower Journal. Spring (9): 40–55. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
  23. ↑ Russell, Leland A.; Warden, John A. (2001). Winning in FastTime: Harness the Competitive Advantage of Prometheus in Business and in Life. Newport Beach, CA: GEO Group Press. ISBN 0-9712697-1-8. 


参考书目 Bibliography

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  • Kenneth D. Bailey (1994). Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis. New York: State of New York Press.
  • Walter F. Buckley (1967). Sociology and Modern Systems Theory, New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
  • Peter Checkland (1997). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
  • Michel Crozier, Erhard Friedberg (1981). Actors and Systems, Chicago University Press.
  • Brian Wilson (1980). Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications, John Wiley
  • Brian Wilson (2001). Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model building and its contribution, J.H.Wiley.
  • Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information + Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke.

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