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Another textbook writer, C.J. Adkins, explicitly allows thermodynamic equilibrium to occur in a system which is not isolated. His system is, however, closed with respect to transfer of matter. He writes: "In general, the approach to thermodynamic equilibrium will involve both thermal and work-like interactions with the surroundings." He distinguishes such thermodynamic equilibrium from thermal equilibrium, in which only thermal contact is mediating transfer of energy.

Another textbook writer, C.J. Adkins, explicitly allows thermodynamic equilibrium to occur in a system which is not isolated. His system is, however, closed with respect to transfer of matter. He writes: "In general, the approach to thermodynamic equilibrium will involve both thermal and work-like interactions with the surroundings." He distinguishes such thermodynamic equilibrium from thermal equilibrium, in which only thermal contact is mediating transfer of energy.

另一位教科书作者，'''<font color="#ff8000">C.J.阿德金斯 C.J. Adkins</font>'''，明确地允许热力学平衡在非孤立的系统中发生。然而，他的系统在物质转移方面是封闭的。他写道: “一般来说，热力学平衡的方法将包括与周围环境的热和类似工作的相互作用。”他将这种热力学平衡与只有热接触才能调解能量传递的热平衡相区别。

另一位教科书作者，C.J.Adkins，明确地允许热力学平衡在非孤立的系统中发生。然而，他的系统在物质转移方面是封闭的。他写道: “一般来说，热力学平衡的方法将包括与周围环境的热和类似工作的相互作用。”他将这种热力学平衡与只有热接触才能调解能量传递的热平衡相区别。

Another textbook author, J.R. Partington, writes: "(i) An equilibrium state is one which is independent of time." But, referring to systems "which are only apparently in equilibrium", he adds : "Such systems are in states of ″false equilibrium.″" Partington's statement does not explicitly state that the equilibrium refers to an isolated system. Like Münster, Partington also refers to the mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. He adds a proviso that "In a true equilibrium state, the smallest change of any external condition which influences the state will produce a small change of state ..." This proviso means that thermodynamic equilibrium must be stable against small perturbations; this requirement is essential for the strict meaning of thermodynamic equilibrium.

Another textbook author, J.R. Partington, writes: "(i) An equilibrium state is one which is independent of time." But, referring to systems "which are only apparently in equilibrium", he adds : "Such systems are in states of ″false equilibrium.″" Partington's statement does not explicitly state that the equilibrium refers to an isolated system. Like Münster, Partington also refers to the mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. He adds a proviso that "In a true equilibrium state, the smallest change of any external condition which influences the state will produce a small change of state ..." This proviso means that thermodynamic equilibrium must be stable against small perturbations; this requirement is essential for the strict meaning of thermodynamic equilibrium.

另一位教科书作者 J.R.Partington 写道: “(i)平衡状态是独立于时间的状态。”但是，在提到“只是明显处于平衡状态”的系统时，他补充说: “这样的系统处于‘虚假平衡’状态。帕廷顿的陈述没有明确指出平衡是指一个孤立的系统。和Münster一样，Partington 也指的是氧和氢的混合物。他补充了一个条件，“在一个真正的平衡状态，任何影响状态的外部条件的最小变化都会产生一个微小的状态变化... ... ”这个条件意味着热力学平衡必须在小的扰动下保持稳定; 这个要求对于热力学平衡的严格意义是必不可少的。

另一位教科书作者'''<font color="#ff8000">J.R.帕廷顿 J.R.Partington</font>'''写道: “(i)平衡状态是独立于时间的状态。”但是，在提到“只是明显处于平衡状态”的系统时，他补充说: “这样的系统处于‘虚假平衡’状态。帕廷顿的陈述没有明确指出平衡是指一个孤立的系统。和Münster一样，Partington也指的是氧和氢的混合物。他补充了一个条件，“在一个真正的平衡状态，任何影响状态的外部条件的最小变化都会产生一个微小的状态变化... ... ”这个条件意味着热力学平衡必须在小的扰动下保持稳定; 这个要求对于热力学平衡的严格意义是必不可少的。

A student textbook by F.H. Crawford has a section headed "Thermodynamic Equilibrium". It distinguishes several drivers of flows, and then says: "These are examples of the apparently universal tendency of isolated systems toward a state of complete mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical—or, in a single word, thermodynamic—equilibrium."

A student textbook by F.H. Crawford has a section headed "Thermodynamic Equilibrium". It distinguishes several drivers of flows, and then says: "These are examples of the apparently universal tendency of isolated systems toward a state of complete mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical—or, in a single word, thermodynamic—equilibrium."

在F.H. Crawford的一本学生教科书中，有一个标题为“热力学平衡”的章节。它区分了几种流动的驱动因素，然后说: “这些是孤立系统明显普遍趋向于完全机械、热、化学和电力状态的例子——或者简单地说，热力学平衡状态。”

在F.H.Crawford的一本学生教科书中，有一个标题为“热力学平衡”的章节。它区分了几种流动的驱动因素，然后说: “这些是孤立系统明显普遍趋向于完全机械、热、化学和电力状态的例子——或者简单地说，热力学平衡状态。”

A monograph on classical thermodynamics by H.A. Buchdahl considers the "equilibrium of a thermodynamic system", without actually writing the phrase "thermodynamic equilibrium". Referring to systems closed to exchange of matter, Buchdahl writes: "If a system is in a terminal condition which is properly static, it will be said to be in equilibrium." Buchdahl's monograph also discusses amorphous glass, for the purposes of thermodynamic description. It states: "More precisely, the glass may be regarded as being in equilibrium so long as experimental tests show that 'slow' transitions are in effect reversible." It is not customary to make this proviso part of the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium, but the converse is usually assumed: that if a body in thermodynamic equilibrium is subject to a sufficiently slow process, that process may be considered to be sufficiently nearly reversible, and the body remains sufficiently nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process.

A monograph on classical thermodynamics by H.A. Buchdahl considers the "equilibrium of a thermodynamic system", without actually writing the phrase "thermodynamic equilibrium". Referring to systems closed to exchange of matter, Buchdahl writes: "If a system is in a terminal condition which is properly static, it will be said to be in equilibrium." Buchdahl's monograph also discusses amorphous glass, for the purposes of thermodynamic description. It states: "More precisely, the glass may be regarded as being in equilibrium so long as experimental tests show that 'slow' transitions are in effect reversible." It is not customary to make this proviso part of the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium, but the converse is usually assumed: that if a body in thermodynamic equilibrium is subject to a sufficiently slow process, that process may be considered to be sufficiently nearly reversible, and the body remains sufficiently nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process.

经典热力学专著作者H.A. Buchdahl认为“热力学系统的平衡”，并没有写下词语“热力学平衡”。Buchdahl在提到封闭的物质交换系统时写道: “如果一个系统处于一种终端状态，而这种终端状态恰好是静态的，那么它将被称为处于平衡状态。”为了热力学描述的目的，Buchdahl的专著也讨论了非晶态玻璃。它说: “更准确地说，只要实验测试表明‘慢’跃迁实际上是可逆的，玻璃就可以被认为处于平衡状态。”将这个但书作为热力学平衡定义的一部分并不是惯例，但是通常的假设是相反的: 如果一个热力学平衡中的物体经历了一个足够缓慢的过程，那么这个过程可以被认为是足够接近可逆的，而且在这个过程中，这个物体足够接近于热力学平衡。

经典热力学专著作者H.A.Buchdahl认为“热力学系统的平衡”，并没有写下词语“热力学平衡”。Buchdahl在提到封闭的物质交换系统时写道: “如果一个系统处于一种终端状态，而这种终端状态恰好是静态的，那么它将被称为处于平衡状态。”为了热力学描述的目的，Buchdahl的专著也讨论了非晶态玻璃。它说: “更准确地说，只要实验测试表明‘慢’跃迁实际上是可逆的，玻璃就可以被认为处于平衡状态。”将这个但书作为热力学平衡定义的一部分并不是惯例，但是通常的假设是相反的: 如果一个热力学平衡中的物体经历了一个足够缓慢的过程，那么这个过程可以被认为是足够接近可逆的，而且在这个过程中，这个物体足够接近于热力学平衡。

A. Münster carefully extends his definition of thermodynamic equilibrium for isolated systems by introducing a concept of contact equilibrium. This specifies particular processes that are allowed when considering thermodynamic equilibrium for non-isolated systems, with special concern for open systems, which may gain or lose matter from or to their surroundings. A contact equilibrium is between the system of interest and a system in the surroundings, brought into contact with the system of interest, the contact being through a special kind of wall; for the rest, the whole joint system is isolated. Walls of this special kind were also considered by C. Carathéodory, and are mentioned by other writers also. They are selectively permeable. They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example, a wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system of interest. In a contact equilibrium, despite the possible exchange through the selectively permeable wall, the system of interest is changeless, as if it were in isolated thermodynamic equilibrium. This scheme follows the general rule that "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions."  

A. Münster carefully extends his definition of thermodynamic equilibrium for isolated systems by introducing a concept of contact equilibrium. This specifies particular processes that are allowed when considering thermodynamic equilibrium for non-isolated systems, with special concern for open systems, which may gain or lose matter from or to their surroundings. A contact equilibrium is between the system of interest and a system in the surroundings, brought into contact with the system of interest, the contact being through a special kind of wall; for the rest, the whole joint system is isolated. Walls of this special kind were also considered by C. Carathéodory, and are mentioned by other writers also. They are selectively permeable. They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example, a wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system of interest. In a contact equilibrium, despite the possible exchange through the selectively permeable wall, the system of interest is changeless, as if it were in isolated thermodynamic equilibrium. This scheme follows the general rule that "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions."  

通过引入接触平衡的概念，a. m ü nster 小心地扩展了孤立系统的热力学平衡定义。对于非孤立系统，特别关注开放系统，开放系统可能从周围环境中获得或失去物质，在考虑非孤立系统时允许的特殊过程，这些过程特别关注开放热力学平衡。利益系统和周围系统之间的接触平衡，通过一种特殊的墙与利益系统接触，其余的连接系统是孤立的。这种特殊类型的墙也被 c. Carathéodory 考虑过，其他作家也提到过。它们具有选择性渗透性。它们可能只对机械工作有渗透性，或者只对热有渗透性，或者只对某种特定的化学物质有渗透性。每个接触平衡定义了一个强度参数; 例如，只能透热的壁定义了一个经验温度。对于感兴趣的体系的每一种化学成分，都可以存在接触平衡。在接触平衡中，尽管有可能通过选择性渗透壁进行交换，感兴趣的系统是不变的，好像它是在孤立的热力学平衡。这个方案遵循的一般规则是: “ ... ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和特定实验条件下的平衡。”

通过引入接触平衡的概念，A. Münster小心地扩展了孤立系统的热力学平衡定义。对于非孤立系统，特别关注开放系统，开放系统可能从周围环境中获得或失去物质，在考虑非孤立系统时允许的特殊过程，这些过程特别关注开放热力学平衡。利益系统和周围系统之间的接触平衡，通过一种特殊的墙与利益系统接触，其余的连接系统是孤立的。这种特殊类型的墙也被'''<font color="#ff8000">C.喀喇西奥多里 C.Carathéodory</font>'''考虑过，其他作家也提到过。它们具有选择性渗透性。它们可能只对机械工作有渗透性，或者只对热有渗透性，或者只对某种特定的化学物质有渗透性。每个接触平衡定义了一个强度参数; 例如，只能透热的壁定义了一个经验温度。对于感兴趣的体系的每一种化学成分，都可以存在接触平衡。在接触平衡中，尽管有可能通过选择性渗透壁进行交换，感兴趣的系统是不变的，好像它是在孤立的热力学平衡。这个方案遵循的一般规则是: “ ... ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和特定实验条件下的平衡。”

[[Mark Zemansky|M. Zemansky]] also distinguishes mechanical, chemical, and thermal equilibrium. He then writes: "When the conditions for all three types of equilibrium are satisfied, the system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium".<ref>[[Mark Zemansky|Zemansky, M.]] (1937/1968), p. 27.</ref>

[[Mark Zemansky|M. Zemansky]] also distinguishes mechanical, chemical, and thermal equilibrium. He then writes: "When the conditions for all three types of equilibrium are satisfied, the system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium".<ref>[[Mark Zemansky|Zemansky, M.]] (1937/1968), p. 27.</ref>

P.M. Morse writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "states of thermodynamic equilibrium". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.

P.M. Morse writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "states of thermodynamic equilibrium". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.

[[Philip M. Morse|P.M. Morse]] writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "''states of thermodynamic equilibrium''". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.<ref>[[Philip M. Morse|Morse, P.M.]] (1969), pp. 6, 37.</ref>

P.M.Morse写道，热力学关注的是“热力学平衡状态”。在讨论物体与周围热源之间的热量传递时，他也使用了“热平衡”这个短语，尽管没有明确定义一个特殊的术语“热平衡”

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "full thermodynamic equilibrium state".

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "full thermodynamic equilibrium state".

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, thermodynamic equilibrium is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, thermodynamic equilibrium is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.

考虑到平衡状态，拜林写道: “每个密集型变量都有自己的平衡类型。”然后他定义了热平衡、力学平衡和物质平衡。因此，他写道: “如果所有的密集变量都是一致的，那么热力学平衡就是存在的。”他在这里没有考虑外力场的存在。

考虑到平衡状态，M.Bailyn写道: “每个密集型变量都有自己的平衡类型。”然后他定义了热平衡、力学平衡和物质平衡。因此，他写道: “如果所有的密集变量都是一致的，那么热力学平衡就是存在的。”他在这里没有考虑外力场的存在。

[[John Gamble Kirkwood|J.G. Kirkwood]] and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.<ref>Kirkwood, J.G., Oppenheim, I. (1961), p. 2</ref>

[[John Gamble Kirkwood|J.G. Kirkwood]] and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.<ref>Kirkwood, J.G., Oppenheim, I. (1961), p. 2</ref>

==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==

==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==