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[[人工智能]](AI)是在达特茅斯研讨会上创立的一门学科。经过一段艰难的发展路程，人工智能获得了大量的关注。所以控制论和人工神经网络的研究一样被低估了<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref>。

[[人工智能]](AI)是在达特茅斯研讨会上创立的一门学科。经过一段艰难的发展路程，人工智能获得了大量的关注。所以控制论和人工神经网络的研究一样被低估了<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref>。

=== New cybernetics ===

=== 新困之论 New cybernetics ===

In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" />

In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" />

In [[political science]], [[Project Cybersyn]] attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeber|first=Katharina|last2=Loeber|first2=Katharina|date=2018-04-13|title=Big Data, Algorithmic Regulation, and the History of the Cybersyn Project in Chile, 1971–1973|journal=Social Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=65|doi=10.3390/socsci7040065|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref>

In [[political science]], [[Project Cybersyn]] attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeber|first=Katharina|last2=Loeber|first2=Katharina|date=2018-04-13|title=Big Data, Algorithmic Regulation, and the History of the Cybersyn Project in Chile, 1971–1973|journal=Social Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=65|doi=10.3390/socsci7040065|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref>

One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" />

One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" />

Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in this increasingly relevant field.<ref name="Kelly" />

Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in this increasingly relevant field.<ref name="Kelly" />

===Cybernetics and economic systems===

===Cybernetics and economic systems===