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In the context of networks, social capital exists where people have an advantage because of their location in a network. Contacts in a network provide information, opportunities and perspectives that can be beneficial to the central player in the network. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong connections. Information within these clusters tends to be rather homogeneous and redundant. Non-redundant information is most often obtained through contacts in different clusters. When two separate clusters possess non-redundant information, there is said to be a structural hole between them. Thus, a network that bridges structural holes will provide network benefits that are in some degree additive, rather than overlapping. An ideal network structure has a vine and cluster structure, providing access to many different clusters and structural holes.

In the context of networks, social capital exists where people have an advantage because of their location in a network. Contacts in a network provide information, opportunities and perspectives that can be beneficial to the central player in the network. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong connections. Information within these clusters tends to be rather homogeneous and redundant. Non-redundant information is most often obtained through contacts in different clusters. When two separate clusters possess non-redundant information, there is said to be a structural hole between them. Thus, a network that bridges structural holes will provide network benefits that are in some degree additive, rather than overlapping. An ideal network structure has a vine and cluster structure, providing access to many different clusters and structural holes.

在网络的背景下，'''<font color="#ff8000">社会资本 Social Capital</font>'''存在于人们因其在网络中的位置而具有优势的地方。网络中的联系提供的信息、机会和观点可能有利于网络中的核心参与者。大多数社会结构往往以有强连接的密集集群为特征。这些集群中的信息往往是相当同质和冗余的。非冗余信息通常是通过不同集群中的联系获得的。当两个独立的集群拥有非冗余信息时，我们称它们之间存在一个'''<font color="#ff8000">结构洞 Structural Hole</font>'''。因此，一个连接结构孔的网络在某种程度上提供附加而非重叠的的网络效益。理想的网络结构具有蔓生结构和集群结构，可访问许多不同集群和结构洞。

在网络的背景下，'''<font color="#ff8000">社会资本 Social Capital</font>'''存在于人们因其在网络中的位置而具有优势的地方。网络中的联系提供的信息、机会和观点可能有利于网络中的核心参与者。大多数社会结构往往以有强连接的密集集群为特征。这些集群中的信息往往是相当同质和冗余的。非冗余信息通常是通过不同集群中的联系获得的。当两个独立的集群拥有非冗余信息时，我们称它们之间存在一个'''<font color="#ff8000">结构洞 Structural Hole</font>'''。因此，一个'''<font color="#32CD32">连接</font>'''结构孔的网络在某种程度上提供附加而非重叠的的网络效益。理想的网络结构具有蔓生结构和集群结构，可访问许多不同集群和结构洞。

This particular cluster focuses on brand-image and promotional strategy effectiveness, taking into account the impact of customer participation on sales and brand-image. This is gauged through techniques such as sentiment analysis which rely on mathematical areas of study such as data mining and analytics. This area of research produces vast numbers of commercial applications as the main goal of any study is to understand consumer behaviour and drive sales.

This particular cluster focuses on brand-image and promotional strategy effectiveness, taking into account the impact of customer participation on sales and brand-image. This is gauged through techniques such as sentiment analysis which rely on mathematical areas of study such as data mining and analytics. This area of research produces vast numbers of commercial applications as the main goal of any study is to understand consumer behaviour and drive sales.

In many organizations, members tend to focus their activities inside their own groups, which stifles creativity and restricts opportunities. A player whose network bridges structural holes has an advantage in detecting and developing rewarding opportunities. Thus, a player with a network rich in structural holes can add value to an organization through new ideas and opportunities. This in turn, helps an individual's career development and advancement.

In many organizations, members tend to focus their activities inside their own groups, which stifles creativity and restricts opportunities. A player whose network bridges structural holes has an advantage in detecting and developing rewarding opportunities. Thus, a player with a network rich in structural holes can add value to an organization through new ideas and opportunities. This in turn, helps an individual's career development and advancement.

A social capital broker also reaps control benefits of being the facilitator of information flow between contacts. In the case of consulting firm Eden McCallum, the founders were able to advance their careers by bridging their connections with former big three consulting firm consultants and mid-size industry firms. By bridging structural holes and mobilizing social capital, players can advance their careers by executing new opportunities between contacts.

A social capital broker also reaps control benefits of being the facilitator of information flow between contacts. In the case of consulting firm Eden McCallum, the founders were able to advance their careers by bridging their connections with former big three consulting firm consultants and mid-size industry firms. By bridging structural holes and mobilizing social capital, players can advance their careers by executing new opportunities between contacts.

社会资本经纪人还可以从促进联系人之间的信息流动中获得控制权利。在咨询公司 Eden McCallum 的案例中，创始人能够通过与前三大咨询公司顾问和中等规模的行业公司建立联系来提升自己的职业生涯。通过弥合结构漏洞和调动社会资本，玩家可以通过在联系人之间执行新的机会来提升自己的职业生涯。

社会资本中介人还可以从促进联系人之间的信息流动中获得控制权利。在咨询公司 Eden McCallum 的案例中，创始人能够通过与前三大咨询公司顾问和中等规模的行业公司建立联系来发展其事业。通过连接结构洞和调动社会资本，玩家可以通过在联系人之间执行新的机会来发展其事业。

There has been research that both substantiates and refutes the benefits of information brokerage. A study of high tech Chinese firms by Zhixing Xiao found that the control benefits of structural holes are "dissonant to the dominant firm-wide spirit of cooperation and the information benefits cannot materialize due to the communal sharing values" of such organizations. However, this study only analyzed Chinese firms, which tend to have strong communal sharing values. Information and control benefits of structural holes are still valuable in firms that are not quite as inclusive and cooperative on the firm-wide level. In 2004, Ronald Burt studied 673 managers who ran the supply chain for one of America's largest electronics companies. He found that managers who often discussed issues with other groups were better paid, received more positive job evaluations and were more likely to be promoted. Thus, bridging structural holes can be beneficial to an organization, and in turn, to an individual's career.

There has been research that both substantiates and refutes the benefits of information brokerage. A study of high tech Chinese firms by Zhixing Xiao found that the control benefits of structural holes are "dissonant to the dominant firm-wide spirit of cooperation and the information benefits cannot materialize due to the communal sharing values" of such organizations. However, this study only analyzed Chinese firms, which tend to have strong communal sharing values. Information and control benefits of structural holes are still valuable in firms that are not quite as inclusive and cooperative on the firm-wide level. In 2004, Ronald Burt studied 673 managers who ran the supply chain for one of America's largest electronics companies. He found that managers who often discussed issues with other groups were better paid, received more positive job evaluations and were more likely to be promoted. Thus, bridging structural holes can be beneficial to an organization, and in turn, to an individual's career.

Computer networks combined with social networking software produces a new medium for social interaction. A relationship over a computerized social networking service can be characterized by context, direction, and strength. The content of a relation refers to the resource that is exchanged. In a computer mediated communication context, social pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer program as well as providing emotional support or arranging a meeting. With the rise of electronic commerce, information exchanged may also correspond to exchanges of money, goods or services in the "real" world. Social network analysis methods have become essential to examining these types of computer mediated communication.

Computer networks combined with social networking software produces a new medium for social interaction. A relationship over a computerized social networking service can be characterized by context, direction, and strength. The content of a relation refers to the resource that is exchanged. In a computer mediated communication context, social pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer program as well as providing emotional support or arranging a meeting. With the rise of electronic commerce, information exchanged may also correspond to exchanges of money, goods or services in the "real" world. Social network analysis methods have become essential to examining these types of computer mediated communication.

In addition, the sheer size and the volatile nature of social media has given rise to new network metrics. A key concern with networks extracted from social media is the lack of robustness of network metrics given missing data.

In addition, the sheer size and the volatile nature of social media has given rise to new network metrics. A key concern with networks extracted from social media is the lack of robustness of network metrics given missing data.

==See also 参阅==

=='''<font color="#32CD32">See also 参阅</font>'''==

* [[Semiotics of social networking]]

* [[Semiotics of social networking]] 社交网络符号学

* [[Scientific collaboration network]]  

* [[Scientific collaboration network]] 科学合作网络

==References==

==References 参考资料==

{{reflist}}

{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

==Further reading 进一步阅读==

* {{cite journal |last1=Aneja |first1=Nagender |last2=Gambhir |first2=Sapna |title=Ad-hoc Social Network: A Comprehensive Survey |url=http://www.ijser.org/researchpaper%5CAd-hoc-Social-Network-A-Comprehensive-Survey.pdf |journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research |volume=4 |issue=8 |date=August 2013 |pages=156–160|issn=2229-5518}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Aneja |first1=Nagender |last2=Gambhir |first2=Sapna |title=Ad-hoc Social Network: A Comprehensive Survey |url=http://www.ijser.org/researchpaper%5CAd-hoc-Social-Network-A-Comprehensive-Survey.pdf |journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research |volume=4 |issue=8 |date=August 2013 |pages=156–160|issn=2229-5518}}

===Organizations===

===Organizations 组织===

* [http://www.insna.org/ International Network for Social Network Analysis]

* [http://www.insna.org/ International Network for Social Network Analysis]

===Peer-reviewed journals===

===Peer-reviewed journals 同行评审期刊===

* ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03788733 Social Networks]''

* ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03788733 Social Networks]''

===Textbooks and educational resources===

===Textbooks and educational resources 课本及教育资源===

* ''[http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/kleinber/networks-book/ Networks, Crowds, and Markets]'' (2010) by D. Easley & J. Kleinberg

* ''[http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/kleinber/networks-book/ Networks, Crowds, and Markets]'' (2010) by D. Easley & J. Kleinberg

===Data sets===

===Data sets 数据集===

* [http://pajek.imfm.si/doku.php?id=data:urls:index Pajek's list of lists of datasets]

* [http://pajek.imfm.si/doku.php?id=data:urls:index Pajek's list of lists of datasets]