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<引用>
<引用>
“系统”即“一种观测对象”，系统化需要极高的视觉梯度。而哲学上，笛卡尔之前没有“系统”，柏拉图没有“系统”，亚里士多德的也没有“系统”。
<ref name ="Marshall1967">
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.</ref><ref>
{{cite book
{{cite book
| last1 = McLuhan
| last1 = McLuhan
| first1 = Marshall
| first1 = Marshall
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| author-link1 = Marshall McLuhan
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| chapter = 4: The ''Hot and Cool'' Interview
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-last = Moos
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-first = Michel″
| editor1-link =
| editor1-link =
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| title = Media Research: Technology, Art and Communication: Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| chapter-url = https://books.google.de/books?id=hZR_AgAAQBAJ
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| series = Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture
| publisher = Routledge
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2014
| date = 2014
| page = 74
| page = 74
| isbn = 9781134393145
| isbn = 9781134393145
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| accessdate = 2015-05-06
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
| quote = 'System' means 'something to look at'. You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'system.'
}}
}}
</ref>
</ref>
* 19世纪，研究[[热力学 thermodynamics]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺 Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]]开创了[[自然科学 natural science]]中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机 steam engine]]的“工作介质 working substance”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。
* 19世纪，研究[[热力学 thermodynamics]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺 Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]]开创了[[自然科学 natural science]]中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机 steam engine]]的“工作介质 working substance”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。