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==熵和生命的起源==

==熵与生命的起源==

The second law of thermodynamics applied to the [[origin of life]] is a far more complicated issue than the further development of life, since there is no "standard model" of how the first biological lifeforms emerged, only a number of competing hypotheses. The problem is discussed within the context of [[abiogenesis]], implying gradual pre-Darwinian chemical evolution. In 1924, [[Alexander Oparin]] suggested that sufficient energy for generating early lifeforms from non-living molecules was provided in a "primordial soup". The Belgian scientist [[Ilya Prigogine]] was awarded with a Nobel Prize in 1977 for an analysis in this area. A related topic is the probability that life would emerge, which has been discussed in several studies, for example by [[Russell Doolittle]].<ref name=":14">Russell Doolittle, "The Probability and Origin of Life" in ''Scientists Confront Creationism'' (1984) Ed. Laurie R. Godfrey, p. 85</ref>

The second law of thermodynamics applied to the [[origin of life]] is a far more complicated issue than the further development of life, since there is no "standard model" of how the first biological lifeforms emerged, only a number of competing hypotheses. The problem is discussed within the context of [[abiogenesis]], implying gradual pre-Darwinian chemical evolution. In 1924, [[Alexander Oparin]] suggested that sufficient energy for generating early lifeforms from non-living molecules was provided in a "primordial soup". The Belgian scientist [[Ilya Prigogine]] was awarded with a Nobel Prize in 1977 for an analysis in this area. A related topic is the probability that life would emerge, which has been discussed in several studies, for example by [[Russell Doolittle]].<ref name=":14">Russell Doolittle, "The Probability and Origin of Life" in ''Scientists Confront Creationism'' (1984) Ed. Laurie R. Godfrey, p. 85</ref>

热力学第二定律应用于生命的起源是一个比生命的发展演化更复杂的问题，因为对于第一个生物体是如何出现的没有“标准模型” ，只有一些争论不休的假设。这个问题是在自然发生的背景下讨论的，意味着在达尔文之前，化学进化被认为是渐进的。1924年，亚历山大·伊万诺维奇·奥巴林（Alexander Oparin） 提出，从无生命的分子中产生早期生命形式所需的足够能量来自于“原始汤”。1977年，比利时科学家伊利亚 · 普里戈金（Ilya Prigogine）因对这一领域的研究而获得诺贝尔奖。另一个相关的话题是生命出现的可能性，这已经在一些研究中讨论过了，比如罗素 · 杜立特尔（Russell Doolittle）的研究<ref name=":14" />。

热力学第二定律应用于生命的起源是一个比生命的发展演化更复杂的问题，因为对于第一个生物体是如何出现的没有“标准模型” ，只有一些争论不休的假设。这个问题是在自然发生的背景下讨论的，意味着在达尔文之前，化学进化被认为是渐进的。1924年，亚历山大·伊万诺维奇·奥巴林（Alexander Oparin） 提出，从无生命的分子中产生早期生命形式所需的足够能量来自于“原始汤”。1977年，比利时科学家伊利亚 · 普里戈金（Ilya Prigogine）因对这一领域的研究而获得诺贝尔奖。另一个相关的课题是生命出现的可能性，这已经在一些研究中讨论过了，比如罗素 · 杜立特尔（Russell Doolittle）的研究<ref name=":14" />。

==熵和寻找地外生命==

==熵与寻找地外生命==

In 1964, [[James Lovelock]] was among a group of scientists requested by [[NASA]] to make a theoretical life-detection system to look for [[life on Mars (planet)|life on Mars]] during the upcoming space mission. When thinking about this problem, Lovelock wondered “how can we be sure that Martian life, if any, will reveal itself to tests based on Earth’s lifestyle?”<ref name="gaia">{{Cite book| last = Lovelock | first = James | title = GAIA – A New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1979 | isbn = 978-0-19-286218-1}}</ref> To Lovelock, the basic question was “What is life, and how should it be recognized?” When speaking about this issue with some of his colleagues at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], he was asked what he would do to look for life on Mars. To this, Lovelock replied "I’d look for an entropy reduction, since this must be a general characteristic of life."<ref name="gaia" />

In 1964, [[James Lovelock]] was among a group of scientists requested by [[NASA]] to make a theoretical life-detection system to look for [[life on Mars (planet)|life on Mars]] during the upcoming space mission. When thinking about this problem, Lovelock wondered “how can we be sure that Martian life, if any, will reveal itself to tests based on Earth’s lifestyle?”<ref name="gaia">{{Cite book| last = Lovelock | first = James | title = GAIA – A New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1979 | isbn = 978-0-19-286218-1}}</ref> To Lovelock, the basic question was “What is life, and how should it be recognized?” When speaking about this issue with some of his colleagues at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], he was asked what he would do to look for life on Mars. To this, Lovelock replied "I’d look for an entropy reduction, since this must be a general characteristic of life."<ref name="gaia" />

The notion of entropy as disorder has been transferred from thermodynamics to [[psychology]] by Polish [[psychiatrist]] [[Antoni Kępiński]], who admitted being inspired by Erwin Schrödinger.<ref name="kepinski1972c">{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Rhythm of life (in Polish)|date=1972|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|location=Kraków}}</ref> In his theoretical framework devised to explain [[mental disorder]]s (the [[information metabolism]] theory), the difference between living organisms and other systems was explained as the ability to maintain order. Contrary to inanimate matter, organisms maintain the particular order of their bodily structures and inner worlds which they impose onto their surroundings and forward to new generations. The life of an organism or the [[species]] ceases as soon as it loses that ability.<ref name="pietrak2018">{{cite journal|last1=Pietrak|first1=Karol|title=The foundations of socionics - a review.|journal=Cognitive Systems Research|volume=47|year=2018|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/J.COGSYS.2017.07.001|s2cid=34672774}}</ref> Maintenance of that order requires continual exchange of information between the organism and its surroundings. In higher organisms, information is acquired mainly through [[sensory neuron|sensory receptors]] and metabolised in the [[nervous system]]. The result is action – some form of [[motion (physics)|motion]], for example [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], [[speech]], internal motion of organs, secretion of [[hormone]]s, etc. The reactions of one organism become an informational signal to other organisms. [[Information metabolism]], which allows living systems to maintain the order, is possible only if a hierarchy of value exists, as the signals coming to the organism must be structured. In humans that hierarchy has three levels, i.e. biological, emotional, and sociocultural.<ref name="schochow2016"> {{cite journal|last1=Schochow|first1=Maximilian|last2=Steger|first2=Florian|title=Antoni Kepiński (1918–1972), pioneer of post-traumatic stress disorder|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=208|issue=6|year=2016|pages=590|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.115.168237|pmid=27251694|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kępiński explained how various mental disorders are caused by distortions of that hierarchy, and that the return to mental health is possible through its restoration.<ref name="bulaczek2013">{{cite journal|last1=Bulaczek|first1=Aleksandra|title=Relations patient – doctor in axiological psychiatry of Antoni Kępiński (in Polish)|journal=Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae UKSW|date=2013|volume=11|issue=2|pages=9–28|doi=10.21697/seb.2013.11.2.01|url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-37c5d3a1-9ee9-49e4-b9d1-287df1ef3a58/c/tom_11_2_1_aleksandra_bulaczek_relacje_pacjent_lekarz_w_psychiatrii_aksjologicznej_antoniego_kepinskiego.pdf}}</ref>

The notion of entropy as disorder has been transferred from thermodynamics to [[psychology]] by Polish [[psychiatrist]] [[Antoni Kępiński]], who admitted being inspired by Erwin Schrödinger.<ref name="kepinski1972c">{{cite book|last1=Kępiński|first1=Antoni|title=Rhythm of life (in Polish)|date=1972|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|location=Kraków}}</ref> In his theoretical framework devised to explain [[mental disorder]]s (the [[information metabolism]] theory), the difference between living organisms and other systems was explained as the ability to maintain order. Contrary to inanimate matter, organisms maintain the particular order of their bodily structures and inner worlds which they impose onto their surroundings and forward to new generations. The life of an organism or the [[species]] ceases as soon as it loses that ability.<ref name="pietrak2018">{{cite journal|last1=Pietrak|first1=Karol|title=The foundations of socionics - a review.|journal=Cognitive Systems Research|volume=47|year=2018|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/J.COGSYS.2017.07.001|s2cid=34672774}}</ref> Maintenance of that order requires continual exchange of information between the organism and its surroundings. In higher organisms, information is acquired mainly through [[sensory neuron|sensory receptors]] and metabolised in the [[nervous system]]. The result is action – some form of [[motion (physics)|motion]], for example [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], [[speech]], internal motion of organs, secretion of [[hormone]]s, etc. The reactions of one organism become an informational signal to other organisms. [[Information metabolism]], which allows living systems to maintain the order, is possible only if a hierarchy of value exists, as the signals coming to the organism must be structured. In humans that hierarchy has three levels, i.e. biological, emotional, and sociocultural.<ref name="schochow2016"> {{cite journal|last1=Schochow|first1=Maximilian|last2=Steger|first2=Florian|title=Antoni Kepiński (1918–1972), pioneer of post-traumatic stress disorder|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=208|issue=6|year=2016|pages=590|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.115.168237|pmid=27251694|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kępiński explained how various mental disorders are caused by distortions of that hierarchy, and that the return to mental health is possible through its restoration.<ref name="bulaczek2013">{{cite journal|last1=Bulaczek|first1=Aleksandra|title=Relations patient – doctor in axiological psychiatry of Antoni Kępiński (in Polish)|journal=Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae UKSW|date=2013|volume=11|issue=2|pages=9–28|doi=10.21697/seb.2013.11.2.01|url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-37c5d3a1-9ee9-49e4-b9d1-287df1ef3a58/c/tom_11_2_1_aleksandra_bulaczek_relacje_pacjent_lekarz_w_psychiatrii_aksjologicznej_antoniego_kepinskiego.pdf}}</ref>

受到了埃尔温·薛定谔的启发，熵作为无序的概念已经由波兰精神病学家 Antoni Kępiński从热力学应用于心理学<ref name="kepinski1972c" /> 。在他为解释精神障碍而提出的理论框架(信息代谢理论)中，生命体和其他系统的区别在于维持秩序的能力。与无生命物质相反，有机体维持着它们的身体结构和内部世界的特定秩序，并且这些秩序强加于它们的周围环境并传递给下一代。有机体或物种的生命一旦失去这种能力就会死亡<ref name="pietrak2018" /> ，而维持这种秩序需要生物体与其周围环境之间不断地交换信息。在高等生命体中，信息主要通过感觉受体获得，并在神经系统中进行代谢，其结果是行动——即某种形式的运动，例如运动、说话、器官的内部运动、激素的分泌等等，这意味着一个有机体的反应成为给其他有机体的信号。只有存在层次结构的情况下，信息新陈代谢允许生命系统维持秩序才成为可能，因为到达生物体的信号必须是有结构的。在人类身上存在三个结构层次，即生理，情感和社会文化<ref name="schochow2016" />。Kępiński 解释了各种各样的精神障碍是如何被扭曲的结构层次所引起的，并且通过治疗恢复精神健康是可能的。

受到了埃尔温·薛定谔的启发，熵作为无序的概念已经由波兰精神病学家 Antoni Kępiński从热力学应用于心理学<ref name="kepinski1972c" /> 。在他为解释精神障碍而提出的理论框架(信息代谢理论)中，生命体和其他系统的区别在于维持秩序的能力。与无生命物质相反，有机体维持着它们的身体结构和内部世界的特定秩序，并且这些秩序强加于它们的周围环境并传递给下一代。有机体或物种的生命一旦失去这种能力就会死亡<ref name="pietrak2018" /> ，而维持这种秩序需要生物体与其周围环境之间不断地交换信息。在高等生命体中，信息主要通过感觉受体获得，并在神经系统中进行代谢，其结果是行动——即某种形式的运动，例如运动、说话、器官的内部运动、激素的分泌等等，这意味着一个有机体的反应成为给其他有机体的信号。因为到达生物体的信号必须是有结构的，所以只有在存在层次结构的情况下，信息新陈代谢允许生命系统维持秩序才成为可能。而在人类身上存在三个结构层次，即生理，情感和社会文化<ref name="schochow2016" />。Kępiński 解释了扭曲的结构层次是如何引起各种各样的精神障碍的，并且可以通过治疗恢复精神健康。

Entropy is well defined for equilibrium systems, so objections to the extension of the second law and of entropy to biological systems, especially as it pertains to its use to support or discredit the theory of evolution, have been stated.<ref name=":18">Callen, Herbert B (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Statistical Thermodynamics. John Wiley and Sons.</ref><ref name=":19">Ben-Naim, Arieh (2012). Entropy and the Second Law. World Scientific Publishing.</ref> Living systems and indeed many other systems and processes in the universe operate far from equilibrium, whereas the second law succinctly states that isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium — the state of maximum entropy.

Entropy is well defined for equilibrium systems, so objections to the extension of the second law and of entropy to biological systems, especially as it pertains to its use to support or discredit the theory of evolution, have been stated.<ref name=":18">Callen, Herbert B (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Statistical Thermodynamics. John Wiley and Sons.</ref><ref name=":19">Ben-Naim, Arieh (2012). Entropy and the Second Law. World Scientific Publishing.</ref> Living systems and indeed many other systems and processes in the universe operate far from equilibrium, whereas the second law succinctly states that isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium — the state of maximum entropy.

对于平衡系统来说，熵是一个很好的定义。反对意见集中于将热力学第二定律和熵扩展到生物系统，特别是因为它涉及到用来支持或否定进化理论<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> 。生命系统和宇宙中的许多其他系统和过程都远离平衡状态，而热力学第二定律简洁地指出，孤立的系统会朝着热力学平衡，即熵最大的状态演化。

对于平衡系统来说，熵是一个很好的定义。反对意见集中于将热力学第二定律和熵扩展到生物系统，特别是用它来支持或否定进化论<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> 。生命系统和宇宙中的许多其他系统和过程都偏离平衡状态，而热力学第二定律简洁地指出，孤立的系统会朝着热力学平衡，即熵最大的状态演化。

However, entropy is well defined much more broadly based on the [[Entropy (information theory)|probabilities]] of a system's states, whether or not the system is a dynamic one (for which equilibrium could be relevant). Even in those physical systems where equilibrium could be relevant, (1) living systems cannot persist in isolation, and (2) the second principle of thermodynamics does not require that free energy be transformed into entropy along the shortest path: living organisms absorb energy from sunlight or from energy-rich chemical compounds and finally return part of such energy to the environment as entropy (generally in the form of heat and low free-energy compounds such as water and carbon dioxide).

However, entropy is well defined much more broadly based on the [[Entropy (information theory)|probabilities]] of a system's states, whether or not the system is a dynamic one (for which equilibrium could be relevant). Even in those physical systems where equilibrium could be relevant, (1) living systems cannot persist in isolation, and (2) the second principle of thermodynamics does not require that free energy be transformed into entropy along the shortest path: living organisms absorb energy from sunlight or from energy-rich chemical compounds and finally return part of such energy to the environment as entropy (generally in the form of heat and low free-energy compounds such as water and carbon dioxide).

然而，熵的定义更普遍地基于系统状态的概率，不管系统是否是一个动态的系统(平衡可能是相关的)。而即使在那些可能与平衡相关的物理系统中，(1)生命系统也不能孤立地存在，(2)热力学第二原理并不要求沿着最短的路径将自由能转化为熵。有机生命体从阳光或高能化合物中吸收能量，最终将这种能量的一部分以熵的形式返回到环境中(通常是以热和水和二氧化碳等低自由能化合物的形式)。

然而，熵的定义更普遍地基于系统状态的概率，不管系统是否是一个动态的系统(平衡可能是相关的)。其一，生命系统也不能孤立地存在，其二，热力学第二原理也并不要求沿着最短的路径将自由能转化为熵，这二者即使在那些可能与平衡相关的物理系统中也成立。有机生命体从阳光或高能化合物中吸收能量，最终将这种能量的一部分以熵的形式返回到环境中(通常是以热和水和二氧化碳等低自由能化合物的形式)。

==See also==

==See also==