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[[File:ConvectionCells.png|300px|thumb|引力场中的对流单元|right]]
 
[[File:ConvectionCells.png|300px|thumb|引力场中的对流单元|right]]
 
物理学中的自组织现象包括'''[[相变]] Phase transitions '''和'''自发对称性破缺 Spontaneous symmetry breaking ''',例如'''自发磁化 Spontaneous magnetization ''' ,经典物理学中的晶体生长,激光,<ref>Zeiger, H. J. and Kelley, P. L. (1991) "Lasers", pp. 614–19 in ''The Encyclopedia of Physics'', Second Edition, edited by Lerner, R. and Trigg, G., VCH Publishers.</ref> 超导和量子物理学的'''玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚 Bose–Einstein condensation '''。它在动力学系统,摩擦学,'''自旋泡沫系统 Spin foam systems '''和'''环量子引力 Loop quantum gravity '''<ref>Ansari M. H. (2004) [https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0412307 Self-organized theory in quantum gravity]. arxiv.org</ref> 的'''自组织临界 Self-organized criticality '''中被发现,也在河流盆地和三角洲,'''枝晶凝固 Dendritic solidification (如雪花)  '''和'''湍流结构  Turbulent structure '''中被发现。<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
 
物理学中的自组织现象包括'''[[相变]] Phase transitions '''和'''自发对称性破缺 Spontaneous symmetry breaking ''',例如'''自发磁化 Spontaneous magnetization ''' ,经典物理学中的晶体生长,激光,<ref>Zeiger, H. J. and Kelley, P. L. (1991) "Lasers", pp. 614–19 in ''The Encyclopedia of Physics'', Second Edition, edited by Lerner, R. and Trigg, G., VCH Publishers.</ref> 超导和量子物理学的'''玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚 Bose–Einstein condensation '''。它在动力学系统,摩擦学,'''自旋泡沫系统 Spin foam systems '''和'''环量子引力 Loop quantum gravity '''<ref>Ansari M. H. (2004) [https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0412307 Self-organized theory in quantum gravity]. arxiv.org</ref> 的'''自组织临界 Self-organized criticality '''中被发现,也在河流盆地和三角洲,'''枝晶凝固 Dendritic solidification (如雪花)  '''和'''湍流结构  Turbulent structure '''中被发现。<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
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===化学===
 
===化学===
 
[[File:DNA_nanostructures.png|300px|thumb|左侧示意的DNA结构自组装为右侧的结构|right]]
 
[[File:DNA_nanostructures.png|300px|thumb|左侧示意的DNA结构自组装为右侧的结构|right]]
 
化学中的自组织包括分子'''自组装 Molecular self-assembly''',<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lehn, J.-M. |journal=|title=Perspectives in Supramolecular Chemistry-From Molecular Recognition towards Molecular Information Processing and Self-Organization |volume=27 |issue=11 |year=1988 |pages=89–121 |doi=10.1002/anie.198800891}}</ref> '''反应扩散系统 Reaction–diffusion systems''' 和'''振荡反应 Oscillating reactions''',<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1021/ja01439a007 | year=1921 | author=Bray, William C. | journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume=43 | pages=1262–67 | issue=6 |title=A periodic reaction in homogeneous solution and its relation to catalysis.}}</ref> '''自催化网络  Autocatalytic networks''','''液晶 Liquid crystals''',<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~jarego/pubs/RD2_LC.pdf |title=Asymmetric synthesis of a highly soluble 'trimeric' analogue of the chiral nematic liquid crystal twist agent Merck S1011 |last=Rego |first=J.A. |last2=Harvey |first2=Jamie A.A. |last3=MacKinnon |first3=Andrew L. |last4=Gatdula |first4=Elysse |journal=Liquid Crystals |volume=37 |issue=1 |date=January 2010 |pages=37–43 |doi=10.1080/02678290903359291 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5oxBzwQCm?url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~jarego/pubs/RD2_LC.pdf |archivedate=2010-04-13}}</ref> '''网格络合物 Ggrid complexes''','''胶质晶体 Colloidal crystals''','''自组装单分子层 Self-assembled monolayers''',<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Love|title= Self-Assembled Monolayers of Thiolates on Metals as a Form of Nanotechnology |journal=Chem. Rev. |year=2005 |volume=105 |pages=1103–70 |doi=10.1021/cr0300789 |last2=Estroff |first2=Lara A. |last3=Kriebel |first3=Jennah K.|last4=Nuzzo|first4=Ralph G. |last5=Whitesides |first5=George M. |pmid=15826011 |issue=4 |displayauthors= 1}}</ref><ref name="Raval2003">{{cite journal|last=Barlow |first=S.M.|author2=Raval R.. |title=Complex organic molecules at metal surfaces: bonding, organisation and chirality |journal=Surface Science Report |year=2003 |volume=50 |issue=6–8 |pages=201–341 |doi=10.1016/S0167-5729(03)00015-3 |bibcode=2003SurSR..50..201B }}</ref>'''胶束 Micelles''','''嵌段共聚物的微相分离 Microphase separation of block copolymers''' 和'''Langmuir-Blodgett膜  Langmuir–Blodgett films'''。<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/srep34095 | title=Large Area Fabrication of Semiconducting Phosphorene by Langmuir-Blodgett Assembly| journal=Sci. Rep.| volume=6| page=34095| year=2016| last1=Ritu | first1=Harneet | pmid=27671093 | pmc=5037434| arxiv=1605.00875| bibcode=2016NatSR...634095K}}</ref>
 
化学中的自组织包括分子'''自组装 Molecular self-assembly''',<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lehn, J.-M. |journal=|title=Perspectives in Supramolecular Chemistry-From Molecular Recognition towards Molecular Information Processing and Self-Organization |volume=27 |issue=11 |year=1988 |pages=89–121 |doi=10.1002/anie.198800891}}</ref> '''反应扩散系统 Reaction–diffusion systems''' 和'''振荡反应 Oscillating reactions''',<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1021/ja01439a007 | year=1921 | author=Bray, William C. | journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume=43 | pages=1262–67 | issue=6 |title=A periodic reaction in homogeneous solution and its relation to catalysis.}}</ref> '''自催化网络  Autocatalytic networks''','''液晶 Liquid crystals''',<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~jarego/pubs/RD2_LC.pdf |title=Asymmetric synthesis of a highly soluble 'trimeric' analogue of the chiral nematic liquid crystal twist agent Merck S1011 |last=Rego |first=J.A. |last2=Harvey |first2=Jamie A.A. |last3=MacKinnon |first3=Andrew L. |last4=Gatdula |first4=Elysse |journal=Liquid Crystals |volume=37 |issue=1 |date=January 2010 |pages=37–43 |doi=10.1080/02678290903359291 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5oxBzwQCm?url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~jarego/pubs/RD2_LC.pdf |archivedate=2010-04-13}}</ref> '''网格络合物 Ggrid complexes''','''胶质晶体 Colloidal crystals''','''自组装单分子层 Self-assembled monolayers''',<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Love|title= Self-Assembled Monolayers of Thiolates on Metals as a Form of Nanotechnology |journal=Chem. Rev. |year=2005 |volume=105 |pages=1103–70 |doi=10.1021/cr0300789 |last2=Estroff |first2=Lara A. |last3=Kriebel |first3=Jennah K.|last4=Nuzzo|first4=Ralph G. |last5=Whitesides |first5=George M. |pmid=15826011 |issue=4 |displayauthors= 1}}</ref><ref name="Raval2003">{{cite journal|last=Barlow |first=S.M.|author2=Raval R.. |title=Complex organic molecules at metal surfaces: bonding, organisation and chirality |journal=Surface Science Report |year=2003 |volume=50 |issue=6–8 |pages=201–341 |doi=10.1016/S0167-5729(03)00015-3 |bibcode=2003SurSR..50..201B }}</ref>'''胶束 Micelles''','''嵌段共聚物的微相分离 Microphase separation of block copolymers''' 和'''Langmuir-Blodgett膜  Langmuir–Blodgett films'''。<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/srep34095 | title=Large Area Fabrication of Semiconducting Phosphorene by Langmuir-Blodgett Assembly| journal=Sci. Rep.| volume=6| page=34095| year=2016| last1=Ritu | first1=Harneet | pmid=27671093 | pmc=5037434| arxiv=1605.00875| bibcode=2016NatSR...634095K}}</ref>
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===生物===
 
===生物===
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数学生物学家斯图尔特·考夫曼 Stuart Kauffman 和其他结构主义者认为,自组织可能与自然选择在进化生物学的三个领域中共同发挥作用,即'''种群动力学  Population dynamics''','''分子进化 Molecular evolution '''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis'''。但是,这种假设没有考虑能量在驱动细胞中生化反应中的重要作用。任何细胞中的反应系统都是'''自催化 Self-catalyzing'''的,但不是简单的自组织,因为它们是依赖于持续能量输入的热力学开放系统。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–99 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Goodwin, Brian |authorlink=|title=Beyond the Darwinian Paradigm: Understanding Biological Forms |work=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |editor1=Ruse, Michael |editor1link=Michael Ruse |editor2=Travis, Joseph |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2009}}</ref> 自组织不是自然选择的替代方法,但是它限制了进化可以做什么,并提供了诸如膜的自组装之类的机制,以便进化利用这种机制。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Brian R. |last2=Lam |first2=Sheung Kwam |title=Self-organization, Natural Selection, and Evolution: Cellular Hardware and Genetic Software |journal=BioScience |date=2010|volume=60 |issue=11 |pages=879–85 |doi=10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.4 |url=http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/11/879.full}}</ref>
 
数学生物学家斯图尔特·考夫曼 Stuart Kauffman 和其他结构主义者认为,自组织可能与自然选择在进化生物学的三个领域中共同发挥作用,即'''种群动力学  Population dynamics''','''分子进化 Molecular evolution '''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis'''。但是,这种假设没有考虑能量在驱动细胞中生化反应中的重要作用。任何细胞中的反应系统都是'''自催化 Self-catalyzing'''的,但不是简单的自组织,因为它们是依赖于持续能量输入的热力学开放系统。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–99 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Goodwin, Brian |authorlink=|title=Beyond the Darwinian Paradigm: Understanding Biological Forms |work=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |editor1=Ruse, Michael |editor1link=Michael Ruse |editor2=Travis, Joseph |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2009}}</ref> 自组织不是自然选择的替代方法,但是它限制了进化可以做什么,并提供了诸如膜的自组装之类的机制,以便进化利用这种机制。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Brian R. |last2=Lam |first2=Sheung Kwam |title=Self-organization, Natural Selection, and Evolution: Cellular Hardware and Genetic Software |journal=BioScience |date=2010|volume=60 |issue=11 |pages=879–85 |doi=10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.4 |url=http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/11/879.full}}</ref>
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===计算机科学===
 
===计算机科学===
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在1990年代,Gordon Pask 辩称,von Foerster 的H和Hmax不是独立的,而是通过可数的'''无限递归并发自旋过程 Countably infinite recursive concurrent spin processes '''相互作用的,<ref name=p1996/> 他称之为概念。他严格定义了“建立关系的程序 A procedure to bring about a relation”这一概念,<ref name=p1973/> 使得他的定理“相似概念排斥,不同概念吸引 Like concepts repel, unlike concepts attract” ,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/03684920110391913| title=On Gordon Pask| journal=Kybernetes| volume=30| issue=5/6| pages=673–82| year=2001| last1=Green | first1=N. }}</ref> 以得出一种通用的、基于自旋的自组织原理。他的原则是一项排除原则,“ 非二重性 There are No Doppelgangers ”意味着没有两个概念完全相同。经过足够的时间后,所有概念都吸引并合并成为粉红噪音 Pink noise。<ref>Pask, Gordon (1993) [http://www.cybsoc.org/PasksIAT.PDF ''Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications''].</ref><ref name="p1996">{{cite journal |author=Pask, Gordon |year=1996 |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/GPprog.PDF |title=Heinz von Foerster's Self-Organisation, the Progenitor of Conversation and Interaction Theories |journal= Systems Research |volume=13|issue= 3 |pages=349–62 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1735(199609)13:3<349::aid-sres103>3.3.co;2-7}}</ref>该理论应用于可以产生持久、连贯产品的所有组织封闭 Organizationally closed 或体内平衡 Homeostatic 的过程,这些产品会不断发展,学习和适应。
 
在1990年代,Gordon Pask 辩称,von Foerster 的H和Hmax不是独立的,而是通过可数的'''无限递归并发自旋过程 Countably infinite recursive concurrent spin processes '''相互作用的,<ref name=p1996/> 他称之为概念。他严格定义了“建立关系的程序 A procedure to bring about a relation”这一概念,<ref name=p1973/> 使得他的定理“相似概念排斥,不同概念吸引 Like concepts repel, unlike concepts attract” ,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/03684920110391913| title=On Gordon Pask| journal=Kybernetes| volume=30| issue=5/6| pages=673–82| year=2001| last1=Green | first1=N. }}</ref> 以得出一种通用的、基于自旋的自组织原理。他的原则是一项排除原则,“ 非二重性 There are No Doppelgangers ”意味着没有两个概念完全相同。经过足够的时间后,所有概念都吸引并合并成为粉红噪音 Pink noise。<ref>Pask, Gordon (1993) [http://www.cybsoc.org/PasksIAT.PDF ''Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications''].</ref><ref name="p1996">{{cite journal |author=Pask, Gordon |year=1996 |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/GPprog.PDF |title=Heinz von Foerster's Self-Organisation, the Progenitor of Conversation and Interaction Theories |journal= Systems Research |volume=13|issue= 3 |pages=349–62 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1735(199609)13:3<349::aid-sres103>3.3.co;2-7}}</ref>该理论应用于可以产生持久、连贯产品的所有组织封闭 Organizationally closed 或体内平衡 Homeostatic 的过程,这些产品会不断发展,学习和适应。
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===人类社会===
 
===人类社会===
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在经济学中,市场经济有时被认为是自组织的 Self-organizing。保罗·克鲁格曼 Paul Krugman 在他的著作《自组织经济 》(The Self Organizing Economy) 中阐述了市场自组织在商业周期中的作用。弗里德里希·哈耶克 Friedrich Hayek 创造了术语'''“ 耦合秩序 catallaxy” ''',以描述一种'''“自愿合作的自组织系统 Self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation”''',这与自由市场经济中的自发秩序有关。新古典经济学家认为,加强中央计划通常会使自组织的经济体系效率降低。从另一个角度来看,经济学家认为市场失灵如此明显以至于自组织产生了不良结果,因此国家应指导生产和定价。大多数经济学家都采取中间立场,并建议将市场经济和'''计划经济 Command economy '''的特征混合在一起 有时称为'''混合经济 Mixed economy '''。当应用在经济学领域时,自组织的概念很容易变成一种意识形态上的渗透。<ref name="Biel2009">{{Cite journal| author=Biel, R. |author2=Mu-Jeong Kho |url=http://rechercheregulation.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/rr_working_serieid_2009-1.pdf |title=The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique |journal=Recherches & Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1 |pages=1–21 |publisher=Association Recherche & Régulation |date=November 2009 |accessdate=2013-11-09}}</ref><ref>Alan Marshall (New Zealand author)|Marshall, A.(2002) ''The Unity of Nature'', Chapter 5. Imperial College Press. {{ISBN|1860943306}}</ref>
 
在经济学中,市场经济有时被认为是自组织的 Self-organizing。保罗·克鲁格曼 Paul Krugman 在他的著作《自组织经济 》(The Self Organizing Economy) 中阐述了市场自组织在商业周期中的作用。弗里德里希·哈耶克 Friedrich Hayek 创造了术语'''“ 耦合秩序 catallaxy” ''',以描述一种'''“自愿合作的自组织系统 Self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation”''',这与自由市场经济中的自发秩序有关。新古典经济学家认为,加强中央计划通常会使自组织的经济体系效率降低。从另一个角度来看,经济学家认为市场失灵如此明显以至于自组织产生了不良结果,因此国家应指导生产和定价。大多数经济学家都采取中间立场,并建议将市场经济和'''计划经济 Command economy '''的特征混合在一起 有时称为'''混合经济 Mixed economy '''。当应用在经济学领域时,自组织的概念很容易变成一种意识形态上的渗透。<ref name="Biel2009">{{Cite journal| author=Biel, R. |author2=Mu-Jeong Kho |url=http://rechercheregulation.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/rr_working_serieid_2009-1.pdf |title=The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique |journal=Recherches & Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1 |pages=1–21 |publisher=Association Recherche & Régulation |date=November 2009 |accessdate=2013-11-09}}</ref><ref>Alan Marshall (New Zealand author)|Marshall, A.(2002) ''The Unity of Nature'', Chapter 5. Imperial College Press. {{ISBN|1860943306}}</ref>
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===学习领域===
 
===学习领域===
 
使他人“学习如何学习”<ref>Rogers.C. (1969). ''Freedom to Learn''. Merrill</ref> 通常是指教导他们如何服从于被教导。'''自组织学习 Self-organised learning, SOL '''<ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1985) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1994) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (2013) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xWVcDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcoverSelf-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology]''. Routledge (Psy. Revivals)</ref> 否认“专家最了解”或存在“最佳方法”,<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (1991) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013)''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. BookBaby (eBook)</ref> 反而坚持认为“个体层面显著的、相关的和可行意义的建构”,<ref>Illich. I. (1971) ''A Celebration of Awareness''. Penguin Books.</ref> 应由学习者进行体验性尝试。<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. (2000) ''The University of Learning in transformation''</ref> 这可能是协作完成的,而且个人收获更大。<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1997) ''This I Believe and Other Essays (Resurgence Book)''. {{ISBN|1870098668}}</ref><ref>Revans R. W. (1982) ''The Origins and Growth of Action Learning'' Chartwell-Bratt, Bromley</ref> 它被视为一生的过程,并不受限于特定的学习环境 家庭,学校,大学 ,也不受限于父母或教授等权威机构的控制。<ref>Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein S. (1993) "On Becoming a Learning Organisation" in ''Report of a 7 year Action Research Project with the Royal Mail Business''. CSHL Monograph</ref> 它需要通过学习者的亲身经历去尝试、并且不断去修正。<ref>Rogers C.R. (1971) ''On Becoming a Person''. Constable, London</ref> 它也不必受限于意识或语言。<ref>Prigogyne I. & Sengers I. (1985) ''Order out of Chaos'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref>弗里特霍夫·卡普拉 Fritjof Capra 声称,这自组织学习,在心理学和教育中鲜为人知。<ref>Capra F (1989) ''Uncommon Wisdom'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref> 它可能与控制论有关,<ref name=p1973>Pask, G. (1973). ''Conversation, Cognition and Learning. A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology''. Elsevier</ref><ref>Bohm D. (1994) ''Thought as a System''. Routledge.</ref>因为它涉及'''负反馈控制回路 Negative feedback control loop''',或者与系统理论有关。它可以作为学习谈话或对话在学习者之间或一个人进行。<ref>Maslow, A. H. (1964). ''Religions, values, and peak-experiences'', Columbus: Ohio State University Press.</ref><ref>''Conversational Science'' Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein E.S. (1985)</ref>
 
使他人“学习如何学习”<ref>Rogers.C. (1969). ''Freedom to Learn''. Merrill</ref> 通常是指教导他们如何服从于被教导。'''自组织学习 Self-organised learning, SOL '''<ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1985) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1994) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (2013) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xWVcDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcoverSelf-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology]''. Routledge (Psy. Revivals)</ref> 否认“专家最了解”或存在“最佳方法”,<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (1991) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013)''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. BookBaby (eBook)</ref> 反而坚持认为“个体层面显著的、相关的和可行意义的建构”,<ref>Illich. I. (1971) ''A Celebration of Awareness''. Penguin Books.</ref> 应由学习者进行体验性尝试。<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. (2000) ''The University of Learning in transformation''</ref> 这可能是协作完成的,而且个人收获更大。<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1997) ''This I Believe and Other Essays (Resurgence Book)''. {{ISBN|1870098668}}</ref><ref>Revans R. W. (1982) ''The Origins and Growth of Action Learning'' Chartwell-Bratt, Bromley</ref> 它被视为一生的过程,并不受限于特定的学习环境 家庭,学校,大学 ,也不受限于父母或教授等权威机构的控制。<ref>Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein S. (1993) "On Becoming a Learning Organisation" in ''Report of a 7 year Action Research Project with the Royal Mail Business''. CSHL Monograph</ref> 它需要通过学习者的亲身经历去尝试、并且不断去修正。<ref>Rogers C.R. (1971) ''On Becoming a Person''. Constable, London</ref> 它也不必受限于意识或语言。<ref>Prigogyne I. & Sengers I. (1985) ''Order out of Chaos'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref>弗里特霍夫·卡普拉 Fritjof Capra 声称,这自组织学习,在心理学和教育中鲜为人知。<ref>Capra F (1989) ''Uncommon Wisdom'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref> 它可能与控制论有关,<ref name=p1973>Pask, G. (1973). ''Conversation, Cognition and Learning. A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology''. Elsevier</ref><ref>Bohm D. (1994) ''Thought as a System''. Routledge.</ref>因为它涉及'''负反馈控制回路 Negative feedback control loop''',或者与系统理论有关。它可以作为学习谈话或对话在学习者之间或一个人进行。<ref>Maslow, A. H. (1964). ''Religions, values, and peak-experiences'', Columbus: Ohio State University Press.</ref><ref>''Conversational Science'' Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein E.S. (1985)</ref>
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===交通流===
 
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===研究基金===
 
===研究基金===
 
自组织拨款 Self-organized funding allocation,SOFA 是为科学研究分配资金的一种方法。在这个系统中,每个研究人员都被分配了相等数量的资金,并且被要求匿名分配他们一部分资金用于其他人的研究。SOFA的支持者认为,这将导致与目前的拨款系统相似的资金分配,但开销却更少。2016年,SOFA的测试试点在荷兰开始。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bollen |first1=Johan |title=Who would you share your funding with? |journal=Nature |date=8 August 2018 |volume=560 |issue=7717 |pages=143 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05887-3 |pmid=30089925 |language=EN|bibcode=2018Natur.560..143B |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2016, a test pilot of SOFA began in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coelho |first1=Andre |title=NETHERLANDS: A radical new way do fund science {{!}} BIEN |url=https://basicincome.org/news/2017/05/netherlands-radical-new-way-fund-science/ |accessdate=2 June 2019}}</ref>
 
自组织拨款 Self-organized funding allocation,SOFA 是为科学研究分配资金的一种方法。在这个系统中,每个研究人员都被分配了相等数量的资金,并且被要求匿名分配他们一部分资金用于其他人的研究。SOFA的支持者认为,这将导致与目前的拨款系统相似的资金分配,但开销却更少。2016年,SOFA的测试试点在荷兰开始。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bollen |first1=Johan |title=Who would you share your funding with? |journal=Nature |date=8 August 2018 |volume=560 |issue=7717 |pages=143 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05887-3 |pmid=30089925 |language=EN|bibcode=2018Natur.560..143B |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2016, a test pilot of SOFA began in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coelho |first1=Andre |title=NETHERLANDS: A radical new way do fund science {{!}} BIEN |url=https://basicincome.org/news/2017/05/netherlands-radical-new-way-fund-science/ |accessdate=2 June 2019}}</ref>
      
==批判==
 
==批判==
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