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While the interdisciplinary concept of neuromorphic engineering is relatively new, many of the same ethical considerations apply to neuromorphic systems as apply to [[human-like machines]] and [[artificial intelligence]] in general. However, the fact that neuromorphic systems are designed to mimic a [[human brain]] gives rise to unique ethical questions surrounding their usage.

While the interdisciplinary concept of neuromorphic engineering is relatively new, many of the same ethical considerations apply to neuromorphic systems as apply to [[human-like machines]] and [[artificial intelligence]] in general. However, the fact that neuromorphic systems are designed to mimic a [[human brain]] gives rise to unique ethical questions surrounding their usage.

While the interdisciplinary concept of neuromorphic engineering is relatively new, many of the same ethical considerations apply to neuromorphic systems as apply to human-like machines and artificial intelligence in general. However, the fact that neuromorphic systems are designed to mimic a human brain gives rise to unique ethical questions surrounding their usage.

虽然神经形态工程这个跨学科概念相对较新，但许多适用于'''<font color="#ff8000">类人机器Human-like machines</font>'''和人工智能的伦理考虑大体上也适用于神经形态系统。另一方面，神经形态系统是为了模仿人类大脑而设计，这一事实引起了一些针对性的独特伦理问题。

 

However, the practical debate is that neuromorphic hardware as well as artificial "neural networks" are immensely simplified models of how the brain operates or processes information at a much lower [[complex system|complexity in terms of size and functional technology]] and a much more regular structure in terms of [[brain connectivity|connectivity]]. Comparing [[neuromorphic chip]]s to the brain is a very crude comparison similar to comparing a plane to a bird just because they both have wings and a tail. The fact is that neural cognitive systems are many orders of magnitude more [[Energy efficiency (physics)|energy-]] and compute-efficient than current state-of-the-art AI and neuromorphic engineering is an attempt to narrow this gap by inspiring from the brain's mechanism just like many engineering designs have [[bioengineering|bio-inspired features]].

However, the practical debate is that neuromorphic hardware as well as artificial "neural networks" are immensely simplified models of how the brain operates or processes information at a much lower [[complex system|complexity in terms of size and functional technology]] and a much more regular structure in terms of [[brain connectivity|connectivity]]. Comparing [[neuromorphic chip]]s to the brain is a very crude comparison similar to comparing a plane to a bird just because they both have wings and a tail. The fact is that neural cognitive systems are many orders of magnitude more [[Energy efficiency (physics)|energy-]] and compute-efficient than current state-of-the-art AI and neuromorphic engineering is an attempt to narrow this gap by inspiring from the brain's mechanism just like many engineering designs have [[bioengineering|bio-inspired features]].

However, the practical debate is that neuromorphic hardware as well as artificial "neural networks" are immensely simplified models of how the brain operates or processes information at a much lower complexity in terms of size and functional technology and a much more regular structure in terms of connectivity. Comparing neuromorphic chips to the brain is a very crude comparison similar to comparing a plane to a bird just because they both have wings and a tail. The fact is that neural cognitive systems are many orders of magnitude more energy- and compute-efficient than current state-of-the-art AI and neuromorphic engineering is an attempt to narrow this gap by inspiring from the brain's mechanism just like many engineering designs have bio-inspired features.

然而，这种争论的实际情况是，神经形态硬件和人工“神经网络”是对大脑运作或处理信息过程的极其简化的模型，在大小和功能技术方面的'''<font color="#ff8000">复杂性Complexity</font>'''相比而言比较低，在'''<font color="#ff8000">连接性Connectivity</font>'''方面也具有更加规则的结构。将'''<font color="#ff8000">神经形态芯片Neuromorphic chips</font>'''与大脑进行比较是一种非常粗糙的比较，类似于仅仅因为飞机有翅膀和尾巴就将它与鸟进行比较。事实上，当前最先进的人工智能在'''<font color="#ff8000">能耗效率Energy-efficiency</font>'''和计算效率方面距离人脑神经认知系统仍有较大差距，而神经形态工程只是一种通过从大脑机制中获得灵感来缩小这种差距的尝试，就像许多工程设计中都具有'''<font color="#ff8000">生物启发的特征Bio-inspired features</font>'''一样。

 

===Democratic concerns===

===Democratic concerns===

===公众担忧 ===

===公众担忧===

Significant ethical limitations may be placed on neuromorphic engineering due to public perception.<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://ai100.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj9861/f/ai_100_report_0831fnl.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030|author=2015 Study Panel|date=September 2016|work=One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100)|publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Special [[Eurobarometer]] 382: Public Attitudes Towards Robots, a survey conducted by the European Commission, found that 60% of [[European Union]] citizens wanted a ban of robots in the care of children, the elderly, or the disabled. Furthermore, 34% were in favor of a ban on robots in education, 27% in healthcare, and 20% in leisure. The European Commission classifies these areas as notably “human.” The report cites increased public concern with robots that are able to mimic or replicate human functions. Neuromorphic engineering, by definition, is designed to replicate the function of the human brain.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/ebs/ebs_382_en.pdf|title=Special Eurobarometer 382: Public Attitudes Towards Robots|last=European Commission|date=September 2012|website=European Commission}}</ref>

Significant ethical limitations may be placed on neuromorphic engineering due to public perception.<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://ai100.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj9861/f/ai_100_report_0831fnl.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030|author=2015 Study Panel|date=September 2016|work=One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100)|publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Special [[Eurobarometer]] 382: Public Attitudes Towards Robots, a survey conducted by the European Commission, found that 60% of [[European Union]] citizens wanted a ban of robots in the care of children, the elderly, or the disabled. Furthermore, 34% were in favor of a ban on robots in education, 27% in healthcare, and 20% in leisure. The European Commission classifies these areas as notably “human.” The report cites increased public concern with robots that are able to mimic or replicate human functions. Neuromorphic engineering, by definition, is designed to replicate the function of the human brain.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/ebs/ebs_382_en.pdf|title=Special Eurobarometer 382: Public Attitudes Towards Robots|last=European Commission|date=September 2012|website=European Commission}}</ref>

Significant ethical limitations may be placed on neuromorphic engineering due to public perception. Special Eurobarometer 382: Public Attitudes Towards Robots, a survey conducted by the European Commission, found that 60% of European Union citizens wanted a ban of robots in the care of children, the elderly, or the disabled. Furthermore, 34% were in favor of a ban on robots in education, 27% in healthcare, and 20% in leisure. The European Commission classifies these areas as notably “human.” The report cites increased public concern with robots that are able to mimic or replicate human functions. Neuromorphic engineering, by definition, is designed to replicate the function of the human brain.

由于公众认知的相关忧虑，神经形态工程学可能会受到严重的伦理限制。欧盟委员会进行的一项调查发现，60% 的欧盟公民希望禁止机器人参与照顾儿童、老人或残疾人的工作。此外，34% 的人支持禁止机器人用于教育，27% 的人支持禁止机器人用于医疗保健，20% 的人支持禁止机器人用于休闲。欧盟委员会将以上领域划入“人类”范畴。报告指出，公众越来越关注能够模仿或复制人类功能的机器人。神经形态工程，顾名思义，是为了复制人脑的功能而设计的。

 

由于公众的认知，神经形态工程学可能会受到严重的伦理限制。欧盟委员会进行的一项调查发现，60% 的欧盟公民希望禁止照顾儿童、老人或残疾人的机器人。此外，34% 的人支持禁止机器人用于教育，27% 的人支持医疗保健，20% 的人支持休闲。欧盟委员会将这些地区明显归类为“人类”报告指出，公众越来越关注能够模仿或复制人类功能的机器人。神经形态工程，顾名思义，是为了复制人脑的功能而设计的。

The democratic concerns surrounding neuromorphic engineering are likely to become even more profound in the future. The European Commission found that EU citizens between the ages of 15 and 24 are more likely to think of robots as human-like (as opposed to instrument-like) than EU citizens over the age of 55. When presented an image of a robot that had been defined as human-like, 75% of EU citizens aged 15–24 said it corresponded with the idea they had of robots while only 57% of EU citizens over the age of 55 responded the same way. The human-like nature of neuromorphic systems, therefore, could place them in the categories of robots many EU citizens would like to see banned in the future.<ref name=":1" />

The democratic concerns surrounding neuromorphic engineering are likely to become even more profound in the future. The European Commission found that EU citizens between the ages of 15 and 24 are more likely to think of robots as human-like (as opposed to instrument-like) than EU citizens over the age of 55. When presented an image of a robot that had been defined as human-like, 75% of EU citizens aged 15–24 said it corresponded with the idea they had of robots while only 57% of EU citizens over the age of 55 responded the same way. The human-like nature of neuromorphic systems, therefore, could place them in the categories of robots many EU citizens would like to see banned in the future.<ref name=":1" />

The democratic concerns surrounding neuromorphic engineering are likely to become even more profound in the future. The European Commission found that EU citizens between the ages of 15 and 24 are more likely to think of robots as human-like (as opposed to instrument-like) than EU citizens over the age of 55. When presented an image of a robot that had been defined as human-like, 75% of EU citizens aged 15–24 said it corresponded with the idea they had of robots while only 57% of EU citizens over the age of 55 responded the same way. The human-like nature of neuromorphic systems, therefore, could place them in the categories of robots many EU citizens would like to see banned in the future.

The democratic concerns surrounding neuromorphic engineering are likely to become even more profound in the future. The European Commission found that EU citizens between the ages of 15 and 24 are more likely to think of robots as human-like (as opposed to instrument-like) than EU citizens over the age of 55. When presented an image of a robot that had been defined as human-like, 75% of EU citizens aged 15–24 said it corresponded with the idea they had of robots while only 57% of EU citizens over the age of 55 responded the same way. The human-like nature of neuromorphic systems, therefore, could place them in the categories of robots many EU citizens would like to see banned in the future.

围绕神经形态工程的民主关注可能在未来变得更加深刻。欧盟委员会(European Commission)发现，15至24岁的欧盟公民比55岁以上的欧盟公民更有可能认为机器人像人(而不是像仪器)。当看到一张被定义为“类人”的机器人图片时，年龄在15岁至24岁之间的欧盟公民中有75% 的人表示，这与他们对机器人的想法相符，而55岁以上的欧盟公民中只有57% 的人有同样的反应。因此，类似人类的神经形态系统，可以把它们归入许多欧盟公民希望在未来禁止使用的机器人类别。

围绕神经形态工程的公众担忧可能在未来变得更加深刻。欧盟委员会发现，15至24岁的欧盟公民比55岁以上的欧盟公民更有可能认为机器人像人(而不是像仪器)。当看到一张被定义为“类人”机器人的图片时，年龄在15岁至24岁之间的欧盟公民中有75% 的人表示，这与他们对机器人的想法相符，而55岁以上的欧盟公民中只有57% 的人有同样的反应。因此，类似人类的神经形态系统，可以把它们归入许多欧盟公民希望在未来禁止使用的机器人类别。

=== Personhood===

===Personhood===

===人格问题===

=== 人格问题===

As neuromorphic systems have become increasingly advanced, some scholars{{who|date=August 2021}} have advocated for granting [[personhood]] rights to these systems. If the brain is what grants humans their personhood, to what extent does a neuromorphic system have to mimic the human brain to be granted personhood rights? Critics of technology development in the [[Human Brain Project]], which aims to advance brain-inspired computing, have argued that advancement in neuromorphic computing could lead to machine consciousness or personhood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aicardi|first=Christine|date=September 2018|title=Accompanying technology development in the Human Brain Project: From foresight to ethics management|journal=Futures|volume=102|pages=114–124|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2018.01.005|doi-access=free}}</ref> If these systems are to be treated as people, critics argue, then many tasks humans perform using neuromorphic systems, including the act of termination of neuromorphic systems, may be morally impermissible as these acts would violate the autonomy of the neuromorphic systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lim|first=Daniel|date=2014-06-01|title=Brain simulation and personhood: a concern with the Human Brain Project|journal=Ethics and Information Technology|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=77–89|doi=10.1007/s10676-013-9330-5|s2cid=17415814|issn=1572-8439}}</ref>

As neuromorphic systems have become increasingly advanced, some scholars{{who|date=August 2021}} have advocated for granting [[personhood]] rights to these systems. If the brain is what grants humans their personhood, to what extent does a neuromorphic system have to mimic the human brain to be granted personhood rights? Critics of technology development in the [[Human Brain Project]], which aims to advance brain-inspired computing, have argued that advancement in neuromorphic computing could lead to machine consciousness or personhood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aicardi|first=Christine|date=September 2018|title=Accompanying technology development in the Human Brain Project: From foresight to ethics management|journal=Futures|volume=102|pages=114–124|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2018.01.005|doi-access=free}}</ref> If these systems are to be treated as people, critics argue, then many tasks humans perform using neuromorphic systems, including the act of termination of neuromorphic systems, may be morally impermissible as these acts would violate the autonomy of the neuromorphic systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lim|first=Daniel|date=2014-06-01|title=Brain simulation and personhood: a concern with the Human Brain Project|journal=Ethics and Information Technology|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=77–89|doi=10.1007/s10676-013-9330-5|s2cid=17415814|issn=1572-8439}}</ref>

随着神经形态系统的日益发展，一些学者主张赋予这些系统人格权。如果是大脑赋予了人类人格，那么神经形态系统在多大程度上必须模仿人类大脑才能被赋予人格权利？“人脑计划”旨在推进以大脑为灵感的计算机技术发展，该计划的批评者认为，神经形态计算机技术的进步可能导致机器意识或人格的形成。批评家认为，如果这些系统被当作人来对待，那么人类使用神经形态系统执行的许多任务，包括终止神经形态系统的行为，可能在道德上是不允许的，因为这些行为将违反神经形态系统的自主性。

随着神经形态系统的日益发展，一些学者主张赋予这些系统人格权。如果是大脑赋予了人类人格，那么神经形态系统在多大程度上必须模仿人类大脑才能被赋予人格权利？“人脑计划”旨在推进以大脑为灵感的计算机技术发展，该计划的批评者认为，神经形态计算机技术的进步可能导致机器意识或人格的形成。批评家认为，如果这些系统被当作人来对待，那么人类使用神经形态系统执行的许多任务，包括终止神经形态系统的行为，可能在道德上是不允许的，因为这些行为将违反神经形态系统的自主性。

==Dual use (military applications)==

 

==Dual use (military applications) ==

==军民两用技术==

==军民两用技术==

The [[Joint Artificial Intelligence Center]], a branch of the U.S. military, is a center dedicated to the procurement and implementation of AI software and neuromorphic hardware for combat use. Specific applications include smart headsets/goggles and robots. JAIC intends to rely heavily on neuromorphic technology to connect "every fighter every shooter" within a network of neuromorphic-enabled units.

The [[Joint Artificial Intelligence Center]], a branch of the U.S. military, is a center dedicated to the procurement and implementation of AI software and neuromorphic hardware for combat use. Specific applications include smart headsets/goggles and robots. JAIC intends to rely heavily on neuromorphic technology to connect "every fighter every shooter" within a network of neuromorphic-enabled units.

怀疑论者认为，在法律上没有办法应用电子人格，这个人格概念将适用于神经形态技术。在一封由285名法律、机器人、医学和伦理学专家签名的信中，作者们反对欧盟委员会承认“智能机器人”为法人的提议，他们写道，“机器人的法律地位不能从自然人模型中推导出来，因为机器人将拥有人权，如尊严权、完整权、报酬权或公民权，从而直接面对人权。这将有悖于《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章和《保护人权和基本自由公约》。”

怀疑论者认为，在法律上没有办法应用电子人格，这个人格概念将适用于神经形态技术。在一封由285名法律、机器人、医学和伦理学专家签名的信中，作者们反对欧盟委员会承认“智能机器人”为法人的提议，他们写道，“机器人的法律地位不能从自然人模型中推导出来，因为机器人将拥有人权，如尊严权、完整权、报酬权或公民权，从而直接面对人权。这将有悖于《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章和《保护人权和基本自由公约》。”

===Ownership and property rights===

===Ownership and property rights ===

===所有权及财产权问题===

===所有权及财产权问题===

There is significant legal debate around property rights and artificial intelligence. In ''Acohs Pty Ltd v. Ucorp Pty Ltd'', Justice Christopher Jessup of the [[Federal Court of Australia]] found that the [[source code]] for [[Material safety data sheets|Material Safety Data Sheets]] could not be [[Copyright law of Australia|copyrighted]] as it was generated by a [[software interface]] rather than a human author.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lavan.com.au/advice/intellectual_property_technology/copyright_in_source_code_and_digital_products|title=Copyright in source code and digital products|last=Lavan|website=Lavan|language=en|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref> The same question may apply to neuromorphic systems: if a neuromorphic system successfully mimics a human brain and produces a piece of original work, who, if anyone, should be able to claim ownership of the work?<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eshraghian|first1=Jason K. |title=Human Ownership of Artificial Creativity |journal=Nature Machine Intelligence |date=9 March 2020 |volume=2 |pages=157–160  |doi=10.1038/s42256-020-0161-x}}</ref>

There is significant legal debate around property rights and artificial intelligence. In ''Acohs Pty Ltd v. Ucorp Pty Ltd'', Justice Christopher Jessup of the [[Federal Court of Australia]] found that the [[source code]] for [[Material safety data sheets|Material Safety Data Sheets]] could not be [[Copyright law of Australia|copyrighted]] as it was generated by a [[software interface]] rather than a human author.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lavan.com.au/advice/intellectual_property_technology/copyright_in_source_code_and_digital_products|title=Copyright in source code and digital products|last=Lavan|website=Lavan|language=en|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref> The same question may apply to neuromorphic systems: if a neuromorphic system successfully mimics a human brain and produces a piece of original work, who, if anyone, should be able to claim ownership of the work?<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eshraghian|first1=Jason K. |title=Human Ownership of Artificial Creativity |journal=Nature Machine Intelligence |date=9 March 2020 |volume=2 |pages=157–160  |doi=10.1038/s42256-020-0161-x}}</ref>

==Neuromemristive systems==

==Neuromemristive systems==

==神经记忆电阻系统==

== 神经记忆电阻系统==

Neuromemristive systems are a subclass of neuromorphic computing systems that focus on the use of [[memristors]] to implement [[neuroplasticity]]. While neuromorphic engineering focuses on mimicking biological behavior, neuromemristive systems focus on abstraction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalops.sandia.gov/Mediasite/Play/a10cf6ceb55d47608bb8326dd00e46611d|title=002.08 N.I.C.E. Workshop 2014: Towards Intelligent Computing with Neuromemristive Circuits and Systems - Feb. 2014|website=digitalops.sandia.gov|access-date=2019-08-26}}</ref> For example, a neuromemristive system may replace the details of a [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] microcircuit's behavior with an abstract neural network model.<ref>C. Merkel and D. Kudithipudi, "Neuromemristive extreme learning machines for pattern classification," ISVLSI, 2014.</ref>

Neuromemristive systems are a subclass of neuromorphic computing systems that focus on the use of [[memristors]] to implement [[neuroplasticity]]. While neuromorphic engineering focuses on mimicking biological behavior, neuromemristive systems focus on abstraction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalops.sandia.gov/Mediasite/Play/a10cf6ceb55d47608bb8326dd00e46611d|title=002.08 N.I.C.E. Workshop 2014: Towards Intelligent Computing with Neuromemristive Circuits and Systems - Feb. 2014|website=digitalops.sandia.gov|access-date=2019-08-26}}</ref> For example, a neuromemristive system may replace the details of a [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] microcircuit's behavior with an abstract neural network model.<ref>C. Merkel and D. Kudithipudi, "Neuromemristive extreme learning machines for pattern classification," ISVLSI, 2014.</ref>

<nowiki>作为物理记忆网络和外部源的性质的函数。在上述方程中，α 是“遗忘”时间尺度常数，xi = r-1，r = frac { r _ text { off }{ on }{ r _ text { on }}是记忆电阻器极限电阻的开关和开关值之比，vec s 是电路源的矢量，Omega 是电路基本环路的投影仪。常数 β 具有电压的尺寸，与记忆电阻器的特性有关; 它的物理起源是导体中的电荷迁移率。对角矩阵和向量 w = 操作者名{ diag }(vec w)和 vec w 分别是记忆电阻器的内值，值在0到1之间。因此，这个等式需要在内存值上添加额外的约束，以保证可靠性。</nowiki>

<nowiki>作为物理记忆网络和外部源的性质的函数。在上述方程中，α 是“遗忘”时间尺度常数，xi = r-1，r = frac { r _ text { off }{ on }{ r _ text { on }}是记忆电阻器极限电阻的开关和开关值之比，vec s 是电路源的矢量，Omega 是电路基本环路的投影仪。常数 β 具有电压的尺寸，与记忆电阻器的特性有关; 它的物理起源是导体中的电荷迁移率。对角矩阵和向量 w = 操作者名{ diag }(vec w)和 vec w 分别是记忆电阻器的内值，值在0到1之间。因此，这个等式需要在内存值上添加额外的约束，以保证可靠性。</nowiki>

== See also==

==See also==

== 相关词条==

==相关词条==

{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|

{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|

* [[AI accelerator (computer hardware)|AI accelerator]]

* [[AI accelerator (computer hardware)|AI accelerator]]

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{{Portal bar|Electronics}}

== References==

==References ==

{{Reflist|40em}}

{{Reflist|40em}}

== External links==

==External links==

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*Telluride Neuromorphic Engineering Workshop

*Telluride Neuromorphic Engineering Workshop

*CapoCaccia Cognitive Neuromorphic Engineering Workshop

* CapoCaccia Cognitive Neuromorphic Engineering Workshop

*Institute of Neuromorphic Engineering

* Institute of Neuromorphic Engineering

*INE news site.

*INE news site.

*Frontiers in Neuromorphic Engineering Journal

* Frontiers in Neuromorphic Engineering Journal

*Computation and Neural Systems department at the California Institute of Technology.

*Computation and Neural Systems department at the California Institute of Technology.

*Human Brain Project official site

*Human Brain Project official site

*碲化物神经形态工程工作室

*碲化物神经形态工程工作室

*CapoCaccia 认知神经形态工程工作室

*CapoCaccia 认知神经形态工程工作室

* 神经形态工程研究所

*神经形态工程研究所

*INE 新闻站点。

*INE 新闻站点。

*《神经形态工程学前沿》

*《神经形态工程学前沿》