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亚里士多德(Aristotle)是古希腊古典时期的哲学家和博物学家。在'''<font color="#ff8000"> 柏拉图</font>'''(Plato)的指导下，他创立了吕克昂学院、哲学逍遥学派和亚里士多德传统。他的著作涉及许多学科，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物理学 physics </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 生物学 biology </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物学 zoology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 形而上学 metaphysics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 逻辑学 logic</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 伦理学 ethics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 美学 aesthetics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 诗歌 poetry</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 戏剧 theatre</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 音乐 music </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 修辞学 rhetoric</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 心理学 psychology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 语言学 linguistics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 经济学 economics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 政治学 politics</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">政府论 government</font>'''。亚里士多德对在他之前存在的各种哲学进行了复杂的综合。最重要的是，正是从他的教诲中，西方世界继承了他的知识词汇、问题，和研究方法。因此，他的哲学对西方几乎所有的知识领域都产生了独特的影响，并且继续成为当代哲学讨论的主题。

亚里士多德(Aristotle /ærɪsˈtɒtəl/;Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC)是古希腊古典时期的哲学家和博物学家。在'''<font color="#ff8000"> 柏拉图 Plato</font>'''的指导下，他创立了吕克昂学院、哲学逍遥学派和亚里士多德传统。他的著作涉及许多学科，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物理学 physics </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 生物学 biology </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物学 zoology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 形而上学 metaphysics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 逻辑学 logic</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 伦理学 ethics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 美学 aesthetics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 诗歌 poetry</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 戏剧 theatre</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 音乐 music </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 修辞学 rhetoric</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 心理学 psychology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 语言学 linguistics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 经济学 economics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 政治学 politics</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">政府论 government</font>'''。亚里士多德对在他之前存在的各种哲学进行了复杂的综合。最重要的是，正是从他的教诲中，西方世界继承了他的知识词汇、问题，和研究方法。因此，他的哲学对西方几乎所有的知识领域都产生了独特的影响，并且继续成为当代哲学讨论的主题。

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. </font>’’’ His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. </font>’’’ His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.

He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of  Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.

He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of  Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.

他影响了中世纪的犹太-伊斯兰哲学(800-1400)，也影响了基督教神学，特别是早起教会的新柏拉图主义和天主教会的经院传统。亚里士多德在中世纪的穆斯林学者中被尊为“第一导师” ，在托马斯 · 阿奎那Thomas Aquinas等中世纪基督徒中被尊为“哲学家”。他的伦理学虽然一直很有影响力，但随着现代美德伦理学的出现，例如阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔Alasdair MacIntyre 和菲利帕 · 福特Philippa Foot的思想，他的伦理学又重新引起了人们的兴趣。

他影响了中世纪的犹太-伊斯兰哲学(800-1400)，也影响了基督教神学，特别是早期教会的新柏拉图主义和天主教会的经院传统。亚里士多德在中世纪的穆斯林学者中被尊为“第一导师” ，在托马斯·阿奎那 Thomas Aquinas 等中世纪基督徒中被尊为“哲学家”。他的伦理学，虽然一直就很有影响力，但随着现代美德伦理学的出现，例如阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔 Alasdair MacIntyre 和菲利帕·福特Philippa Foot的思想，他的伦理学又进一步重新引起了人们的兴趣。

==Life==

==生平==

 

[[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]]

[[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]]

总的来说，关于Aristotle生活的细节并不完整。古代的传记往往是臆测性的，历史学家们只在几个要点上达成一致。

总的来说，关于Aristotle生活的细节并不完整。古代的传记往往是臆测性的，历史学家们只在几个要点上达成一致。

Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Campbell}}<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384&nbsp;BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].{{sfn|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.{{sfn|Hall|2018|p=14}} Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}}

Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Campbell}}<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384&nbsp;BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].{{sfn|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.{{sfn|Hall|2018|p=14}} Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}}

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.

在十七八岁时，Aristotle移居雅典，在柏拉图学院继续他的学业。他可能经历过厄琉息斯秘仪，正如他在描述在厄琉息斯秘仪观察到的景象时所写的，“经历就是学习”[ παεθν αθν μθν ]。Aristotle在公元前348/47年离开之前，在雅典呆了将近20年。关于他离开的传统故事记载，在Plato的侄子斯皮普斯 Speusippus掌管学院后，他对学院发展方向感到失望，尽管他可能害怕当时雅典的反马其顿情绪，并在柏拉图去世之前离开了。随后，Aristotle陪同齐诺克利特Xenocrates来到小亚细亚的他的朋友阿塔尼厄斯的赫米亚Hermias的宫廷。Hermias死后，Aristotle和他的学生泰奥弗拉斯特斯Theophrastus前往莱斯博斯岛，在那里他们一起研究了岛上及其环礁湖的植物学和动物学。在莱斯博斯岛的时候，Aristotle与Hermias的养女或侄女皮提亚斯Pythias结婚。她为他生了一个女儿，他们也给她起名叫Pythias。公元前343年，腓力二世邀请Aristotle成为他儿子亚历山大Alexander的家庭教师。

在十七八岁时，亚里士多德移居雅典，在柏拉图学院继续他的学业。他可能经历过厄琉息斯秘仪，因为他所描述过在厄琉息斯秘仪观察到的景象：'''“经历就是学习”[ παεθν αθν μθν ]'''。亚里士多德在公元前348/347年离开之前，在雅典呆了将近20年。关于他离开的故事记载，在柏拉图的侄子''斯皮普斯 Speusippus''掌管学院后，他对学院发展方向感到失望，尽管他也可能是害怕当时雅典的反马其顿情绪，因此在柏拉图去世之前离开了。随后，亚里士多德陪''同齐诺克利特 Xenocrates''来到小亚细亚的他的朋友阿塔尼厄斯的''赫米亚 Hermias''的宫廷。赫米亚死后，亚里士多德和他的学生''泰奥弗拉斯特斯 Theophrastus''前往莱斯博斯岛，在那里他们一起研究了岛上及其环礁湖的植物学和动物学。在莱斯博斯岛的时候，亚里士多德与赫米亚的养女或侄女''皮提亚斯 Pythias''结婚。她为他生了一个女儿，他们也给她起名叫Pythias。公元前343年，腓力二世邀请亚里士多德成为他儿子''亚历山大 Alexander''的家庭教师。

Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335&nbsp;BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If we believed the Suda (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> he may also had an erômenos,  Palaephatus of Abydus.</font>’’’

Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335&nbsp;BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If we believed the Suda (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> he may also had an erômenos,  Palaephatus of Abydus.</font>’’’

Aristotle被任命为马其顿皇家学院院长。Aristotle在马其顿宫廷的时候，他不仅向亚历山大授课，还向未来的另外两位国王授课: 托勒密Ptolemy和卡山德Cassander。Aristotle鼓励Alexander去征服东方，而Aristotle本人对波斯的态度是毫不掩饰的种族中心主义。在一个著名的例子中，他建议Alexander成为“希腊人的领袖，野蛮人的暴君，像对待亲友一样对待前者，像对待动物或植物一样对待后者”。到公元前335年，Aristotle回到雅典，在那里建立了他自己的学校，被称为吕克昂。在接下来的十二年里，Aristotle在学校里开设课程。在雅典期间，他的妻子Pythias去世，Aristotle与斯塔吉拉的赫皮利斯Herpyllis有染，Herpyllis为他生了一个儿子，Aristotle以他父亲Nicomachus的名字给他取名。如果我们相信苏达(中世纪的一个不严谨的汇编) ，’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’>他可能也有一个 erômenos，Palaephatus of Abydus。 </font>’’’

 

亚里士多德被任命为马其顿皇家学院院长。亚里士多德在马其顿宫廷的时候，他不仅向亚历山大授课，还向未来的另外两位国王授课: ''托勒密 Ptolemy''和''卡山德 Cassander''。亚里士多德鼓励亚历山大去征服东方，而亚里士多德本人对波斯的态度是毫不掩饰的种族主义。在一个著名的例子中，他建议亚历山大成为“希腊人的领袖，野蛮人的暴君，像对待亲友一样对待前者，像对待动物或植物一样对待后者”。到公元前335年，亚里士多德回到雅典，在那里建立了他自己的学校，被称为吕克昂。在接下来的十二年里，亚里士多德在学校里开设课程。在雅典期间，他的妻子Pythias去世，亚里士多德与斯塔吉拉的''赫皮利斯 Herpyllis''有染，赫皮利斯为他生了一个儿子，亚里士多德以他父亲Nicomachus的名字给他取名。如果我们相信''苏达 Suda''(中世纪的一个不严谨的汇编) 中的记载，他可能也有一个情人：Palaephatus of Abydus</font>

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."

公元前335年至公元前323年的雅典时期，被认为是Aristotle创作许多作品的时期。他写了许多对话录，其中只有一些片段留存了下来。那些留存下来的作品都是论文形式的，而且大部分并不打算广泛出版; 它们通常被认为是他的学生的讲课辅助工具。他最重要的论著包括《物理学》、《形而上学》、《尼各马可伦理学》、《政治学》、《论灵魂》和《诗学》。Aristotle对j逻辑学、形而上学、数学、物理学、生物学、植物学、伦理学、政治学、农业、医学、舞蹈和戏剧学”都有研究，并作出了重大贡献

公元前335年至公元前323年的雅典时期，被认为是亚里士多德创作的黄金时期。他写了许多对话录，其中只有一些片段留存了下来。那些留存下来的作品都是论文形式的，而且大部分并不打算广泛出版; 它们通常被认为是他的学生的讲课辅助工具。他最重要的论著包括《物理学》、《形而上学》、《尼各马可伦理学》、《政治学》、《论灵魂》和《诗学》。亚里士多德对“逻辑学、形而上学、数学、物理学、生物学、植物学、伦理学、政治学、农业、医学、舞蹈和戏剧学”都有研究，并作出了重大贡献

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&nbsp;BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in  Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&nbsp;BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in  Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.

在他生命的最后阶段，Alexander和Aristotle因为Alexander与波斯和波斯人的关系而变得疏远。古代有一个广泛流传的传说，怀疑Aristotle在Alexander的死亡中扮演了一个角色，但是唯一的证据是在Alexander死后大约六年提出的一个不太可能的断言。Alexander死后，雅典的反马其顿情绪重新燃起。公元前322年，据说 德摩菲勒斯 Demophilus 和赫拉菲顿Eurymedon 谴责Aristotle不敬神，促使他逃往他母亲在埃维厄岛哈尔基斯的家族庄园，据说当时他说: “我不允许雅典人两次违背哲学”——指的是雅典对苏格拉底的审判和处决。同年晚些时候，他因自然原因在埃维厄岛去世，指定他的学生安提帕特Antipater为他的首席遗嘱执行人，并留下一份遗嘱，要求与妻子葬在一起。

在他生命的最后阶段，亚历山大和亚里士多德因为亚历山大与波斯和波斯人的关系而变得疏远。古代有一个广泛流传的传说，怀疑亚里士多德在亚历山大的死亡中扮演了一个角色，但是唯一的证据是在亚历山大死亡大约六年后提出的一个不太可能的断言。亚历山大死后，雅典的反马其顿情绪重新燃起。公元前322年，据说''德摩菲勒斯 Demophilus''和''赫拉菲顿 Eurymedon''谴责亚里士多德不敬神，促使他逃往他母亲在埃维厄岛哈尔基斯的家族庄园，传闻当时他说: “我不允许雅典人两次违背哲学”——指的是雅典对苏格拉底的审判和处决。同年晚些时候，他在埃维厄岛自然去世，指定他的学生''安提帕特 Antipater''为他的首席遗嘱执行人，并留下一份遗嘱，要求与妻子葬在一起。

 

 

 

 

 

 

With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,{{sfn| Degnan | 1994 | pp=81–89}} and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].{{sfn| Corcoran | 2009 | pp=1–20}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.{{sfn| Kant | 1787 | pages=Preface}}

With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,{{sfn| Degnan | 1994 | pp=81–89}} and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].{{sfn| Corcoran | 2009 | pp=1–20}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.{{sfn| Kant | 1787 | pages=Preface}}

With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.

With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.

由于《先验分析学》一书，亚里士多德被认为是最早研究形式逻辑的人，并且他对形式逻辑的构想是19世纪数理逻辑发展之前西方逻辑的主导形式。''康德 Kant''在《纯粹理性批判》中指出，有了亚里士多德,逻辑学才得以完善。

 

 

 

====''Organon''====

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

! In words !! In terms{{efn-ua|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} !! In equations{{efn-ua|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'{{sfn|Predicate Logic}}}}

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),{{sfn| Lagerlund | 2016}} Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}} The books are:

What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),{{sfn| Lagerlund | 2016}} Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}} The books are:

What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:

What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:

今天我们所称的亚里士多德逻辑学及其三段论(逻辑论证的方法)的类型 ，Aristotle本人将其称为“分析学”。他把“逻辑”一词保留为辩证法的意思。Aristotle的大部分著作可能都不是原貌，因为它很可能是由学生和后来的讲师编辑的。大约在公元前40年左右，Aristotle的逻辑学著作被罗德岛的安东尼库斯Andronicus及其追随者中的其他人汇编成了一套6本书，名为《工具论》。这些书是:

今天我们所称的亚里士多德逻辑学及其三段论(逻辑论证的方法) ，亚里士多德本人将其称为“分析学”。他把“逻辑”一词保留为“辩证法”的意思。亚里士多德的大部分著作可能都不是原貌，因为它很可能是由学生和后来的讲师编辑的。大约在公元前40年左右，亚里士多德的逻辑学著作被罗德岛的''安东尼库斯 Andronicus''及其追随者中的其他人汇编成了一套6本书，名为《工具论》。这些书是:

 

 

 

 

 

 

# ''[[Prior Analytics]]''

 

 

 

# ''[[Posterior Analytics]]''

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle in [[Raphael]]'s 1509 fresco, ''[[The School of Athens]]''. Aristotle holds his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''.{{sfn| School of Athens}}{{sfn|Stewart|2019}}]]

 

 

 

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics''){{sfn| Prior Analytics | pp= 24b18–20}}{{sfn| Bobzien | 2015}} and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}}

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics''){{sfn| Prior Analytics | pp= 24b18–20}}{{sfn| Bobzien | 2015}} and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}}

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.

这些书的顺序(或者说它们所组成的教义)并不确定，但是这个清单是通过对亚里士多德著作的分析中得出的。它从基础知识，《范畴篇》中对简单术语的分析，《解释篇》中对命题及其基本关系的分析，到研究更复杂的形式，即三段论（在《分析篇》中）和辩证法（在《论题篇与辩谬篇》中）。前三篇论述构成了严格意义上的逻辑理论的核心: 逻辑语言的语法和正确的推理规则。《修辞学》没有按照惯例包括在内，但它指出它依赖于《论题篇》。

这些书的顺序(或者说它们所组成的课程)并不确定，但是这个清单是通过对亚里士多德著作的分析中得出的。它从基础知识，《范畴篇》中对简单术语的分析，《解释篇》中对命题及其基本关系的分析，到研究更复杂的形式，即三段论（在《分析篇》中）和辩证法（在《论题篇与辩谬篇》中）。前三篇论述构成了严格意义上的逻辑理论的核心: 逻辑语言的语法和正确的推理规则。《修辞学》没有按照惯例包括在内，但它指出它依赖于《论题篇》。

 

 

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):

“形而上学”一词似乎是由公元一世纪的一位广告编辑创造的，他把Aristotle的作品中的一些小片段汇编成我们所知的《形而上学》这篇论文。Aristotle称之为“第一哲学” ，并把它与数学和自然科学(物理学)区别开来，是一种沉思的(理论)哲学，即“神学”和研究神性。他在《形而上学》(1026a16)中写道:

“形而上学”一词似乎是由公元前一世纪的一位编辑创造的，他把亚里士多德的作品中的一些小片段汇编成我们所知的《形而上学》这篇论文。亚里士多德称之为“第一哲学” ，并把它与数学和自然科学(物理学)区别开来，是一种沉思的(理论)哲学，即“神学”和研究神性。他在《形而上学》(1026a16)中写道:

 

{{quote | if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1999 | page=111}}}}

if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1999 | page=111}}

如果除了复合的自然事物之外，没有其他独立的事物，那么对自然的研究将是主要的一种知识；但是，如果有不动的独立的事物，那么对于这种独立的东西的认识就先于它而成为第一哲学，因此它就具有普遍性，因为它是第一的。而这种哲学，既要研究作为存在的存在，也要研究由于存在而属于存在的存在。

如果除了复合的自然事物之外，没有其他独立的事物，那么对自然的研究将是主要的一种知识；但是，如果有不动的独立的事物，那么对于这种独立的东西的认识就先于它而成为第一哲学，因此它就具有普遍性，因为它是第一的。而这种哲学，既要研究作为存在的存在，也要研究由于存在而属于存在的存在。

 

==== 物质 （substance）====

==== Substance ====

 

 

 

 

Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}

Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.

Aristotle在《形而上学》(第七卷)中研究了物质和本质的概念，他得出结论说，一种特殊的物质是物质和形式的结合体，这是一种哲学理论，称为形式质料说。在第八卷中，他将物质区分为基础，或构成物质的材料。例如，房子的物质是砖、石头、木材等，或任何构成潜在房子的物质，而实体的形式是实际的房子，即“覆盖身体和动产”或任何其他差异，让我们定义一些东西为房子。给出分量的公式是对物质的描述，给出微分的公式是对形式的描述。

亚里士多德在《形而上学》(第七卷)中研究了物质和本质的概念，他得出结论说，一种特殊的物质是物质和形式的结合体，这是一种哲学理论，称为形式质料说。在第八卷中，他将物质区分为基础，或构成物质的材料。例如，房子的物质是砖、石头、木材等，或任何构成潜在房子的物质，而实体的形式是实际的房子，即“覆盖身体和动产”或任何其他差异，让我们定义一些东西为房子。给出分量的公式是对物质的描述，给出微分的公式是对形式的描述。

===== Immanent realism =====

===== Immanent realism =====

内在实在论

内在实在论

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate.  For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate.  For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate.  For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate.  For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.

和他的老师Plato一样，Aristotle的哲学也着眼于普遍性。Aristotle的本体论把普遍性(天主教)至于特殊性(凯斯的希卡斯顿)，即世界上的事物中，而对Plato来说，普遍性是实际事物模仿的一种单独存在的形式。对于Aristotle来说，“形式”仍然是现象的基础，但是在特定的实体中被“实例化”了。

和他的老师柏拉图一样，亚里士多德的哲学也着眼于普遍性。亚里士多德的本体论把普遍性(天主教)至于特殊性(凯斯的希卡斯顿)，即世界上的事物中，而对Plato来说，普遍性是实际事物模仿的一种单独存在的形式。对于亚里士多德来说，“形式”仍然是现象的基础，但是在特定的实体中被“实例化”了。