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[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb|right|''Pseudomyrmex'' ant on bull thorn acacia (''[[Vachellia cornigera]]'') with Beltian bodies that provide the ants with protein<ref name="Hölldobler-532"/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg]]

[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb|right|''Pseudomyrmex'' ant on bull thorn acacia (''[[Vachellia cornigera]]'') with Beltian bodies that provide the ants with protein<ref name="Hölldobler-532"/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg]]

=== 相思蚂蚁和金合欢 ===  

=== 相思树蚁与牛角相思树 ===  

{{Main|Pseudomyrmex ferruginea}}

{{Main|Pseudomyrmex ferruginea}}

The [[acacia ant]] (''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea'') is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (''[[Vachellia]]''){{efn|The acacia ant protects at least 5 species of "Acacia", now all renamed to ''Vachellia'': ''[[Vachellia chiapensis|V. chiapensis]]'', ''[[Vachellia collinsii|V. collinsii]]'', ''[[Vachellia cornigera|V. cornigera]]'', ''[[Vachellia hindsii|V. hindsii]]'', and ''[[Vachellia sphaerocephala|V. sphaerocephala]]''.}} from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.<ref name="Hölldobler-532">{{cite book |last1=Hölldobler |first1=Bert |last2=Wilson |first2=Edward O. |title=The ants |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-674-04075-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/532 532]–533}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=National Geographic|title=Acacia Ant Video|url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107085438/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|archive-date=2007-11-07}}</ref> Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different [[evolutionary strategy|evolutionary strategies]]. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1006872107 |vauthors=Palmer TM, Doak DF, Stanton ML, Bronstein JL, Kiers ET, Young TP, Goheen JR, Pringle RM |year=2010 |title=Synergy of multiple partners, including freeloaders, increases host fitness in a multispecies mutualism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=40 |pages=17234–9 |pmid=20855614 |pmc=2951420 |bibcode=2010PNAS..10717234P|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Kinship and incompatibility between colonies of the acacia ant ''Pseudomyrex ferruginea'' |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |first=Alex |last=Mintzer |author2=Vinson, S.B. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=75–78 |doi=10.1007/bf00299432 |jstor=4599807 |year=1985|s2cid=9538185 }}</ref>

The [[acacia ant]] (''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea'') is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (''[[Vachellia]]''){{efn|The acacia ant protects at least 5 species of "Acacia", now all renamed to ''Vachellia'': ''[[Vachellia chiapensis|V. chiapensis]]'', ''[[Vachellia collinsii|V. collinsii]]'', ''[[Vachellia cornigera|V. cornigera]]'', ''[[Vachellia hindsii|V. hindsii]]'', and ''[[Vachellia sphaerocephala|V. sphaerocephala]]''.}} from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae. Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different [[evolutionary strategy|evolutionary strategies]]. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.

The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae. Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different evolutionary strategies. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.

The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae. Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different evolutionary strategies. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.

金合欢蚂蚁(相思树蚁)是一种专性植物蚂蚁，它能保护至少5种金合欢树(Vachellia)免受捕食昆虫和其他植物争夺阳光的伤害，并为蚂蚁及其幼虫提供营养和庇护。这种互利共生并不是自然而然的: 其他蚂蚁种类遵循不同的进化策略，不作回报地利用树木。这些骗子蚂蚁通过破坏树木的生殖器官给寄主造成重大损失，但它们对寄主适合度的净影响并不一定是负面的，因此难以预测。

相思树蚁（''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea''）是一种能保护至少5种金合欢树（''Vachellia''）免受食用牛角相思树的昆虫和其他植物争夺阳光的专性植物蚂蚁，而这种树则为这种蚂蚁及其幼虫提供营养和庇护<ref name="Hölldobler-532">{{cite book |last1=Hölldobler |first1=Bert |last2=Wilson |first2=Edward O. |title=The ants |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-674-04075-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/532 532]–533}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=National Geographic|title=Acacia Ant Video|url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107085438/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|archive-date=2007-11-07}}</ref>。这种互利共生并不是自然而然的：其他蚂蚁种类遵循不同的进化策略，利用树木而不作回报；这些欺诈性的蚂蚁通过破坏树木的生殖器官对寄主施加重大伤害，不过它们对寄主健康的净影响并不一定是负面的，因此难以预测。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1006872107 |vauthors=Palmer TM, Doak DF, Stanton ML, Bronstein JL, Kiers ET, Young TP, Goheen JR, Pringle RM |year=2010 |title=Synergy of multiple partners, including freeloaders, increases host fitness in a multispecies mutualism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=40 |pages=17234–9 |pmid=20855614 |pmc=2951420 |bibcode=2010PNAS..10717234P|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Kinship and incompatibility between colonies of the acacia ant ''Pseudomyrex ferruginea'' |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |first=Alex |last=Mintzer |author2=Vinson, S.B. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=75–78 |doi=10.1007/bf00299432 |jstor=4599807 |year=1985|s2cid=9538185 }}</ref>

==Hosts and parasites==

==Hosts and parasites==

{{Main|Host–parasite coevolution}}

{{Main|Host–parasite coevolution}}

===Parasites and sexually reproducing hosts===

===寄生虫和有性生殖的宿主===

[[Host–parasite coevolution]] is the coevolution of a [[host (biology)|host]] and a [[parasite]].<ref name="Woolhouse">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1202-569 |last1=Woolhouse |first1=M. E. J. |last2=Webster |first2=J. P. |last3=Domingo |first3=E. |last4=Charlesworth|first4=B. |last5=Levin |first5=B. R. |title=Biological and biomedical implications of the coevolution of pathogens and their hosts |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |date=December 2002 |pmid=12457190 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |url=http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/689/2/Charlesworth_Woolhouse.pdf|hdl=1842/689 |s2cid=33145462 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A general characteristic of many viruses, as [[obligate parasite]]s, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the [[Red Queen hypothesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Valen, L. |date=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}} cited in: [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REDQUEEN.html The Red Queen Principle]</ref> The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the [[Red Queen's race]] in ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'': "it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place".<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Lewis |author-link=Lewis Carroll |orig-year=1871 |title=Through the Looking-glass: And what Alice Found There |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJJZAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Macmillan |date=1875 |page=42 |quote=it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place.}}</ref> The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep10004 |last=Rabajante |first=J. |display-authors=etal |title=Red Queen dynamics in multi-host and multi-parasite interaction system |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2015 |volume=5 |pages=10004 |pmid=25899168 |pmc=4405699|bibcode=2015NatSR...510004R}}</ref>

[[Host–parasite coevolution]] is the coevolution of a [[host (biology)|host]] and a [[parasite]]. A general characteristic of many viruses, as [[obligate parasite]]s, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the [[Red Queen hypothesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Valen, L. |date=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}} cited in: [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REDQUEEN.html The Red Queen Principle]</ref> The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the [[Red Queen's race]] in ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'': "it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place".<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Lewis |author-link=Lewis Carroll |orig-year=1871 |title=Through the Looking-glass: And what Alice Found There |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJJZAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Macmillan |date=1875 |page=42 |quote=it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place.}}</ref> The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep10004 |last=Rabajante |first=J. |display-authors=etal |title=Red Queen dynamics in multi-host and multi-parasite interaction system |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2015 |volume=5 |pages=10004 |pmid=25899168 |pmc=4405699|bibcode=2015NatSR...510004R}}</ref>

Host–parasite coevolution is the coevolution of a host and a parasite. A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. cited in: The Red Queen Principle The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.

Host–parasite coevolution is the coevolution of a host and a parasite. A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. cited in: The Red Queen Principle The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.

= = = 寄生虫和有性生殖的宿主 = = = 宿主-寄生虫的共同进化是宿主和寄生虫的共同进化。许多病毒作为专性寄生虫的一个普遍特征是它们与各自的宿主共同进化。这两个物种之间的相关突变使它们进入了进化的军备竞赛。无论是哪种生物、宿主或寄生物，如果不能跟上其他生物的步伐，就会从它们的栖息地消失，因为平均适合度较高的物种会幸存下来。这一种族被称为红皇后假说。红皇后原则红皇后假说预测有性生殖可以让寄主在寄生虫之前保持领先，就像爱丽丝镜中奇遇的红皇后比赛一样: “你可以尽你所能地跑，保持在同一个地方。”。宿主进行有性繁殖，产生一些对寄生虫具有免疫力的后代，然后进化为应对措施。

宿主-寄生虫的共同演化是宿主和寄生虫的共同演化。<ref name="Woolhouse">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1202-569 |last1=Woolhouse |first1=M. E. J. |last2=Webster |first2=J. P. |last3=Domingo |first3=E. |last4=Charlesworth|first4=B. |last5=Levin |first5=B. R. |title=Biological and biomedical implications of the coevolution of pathogens and their hosts |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |date=December 2002 |pmid=12457190 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |url=http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/689/2/Charlesworth_Woolhouse.pdf|hdl=1842/689 |s2cid=33145462 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>许多病毒作为专性寄生虫的一个普遍特征是它们与各自的宿主共同进化。这两个物种之间的相关突变使它们进入了进化的军备竞赛。无论是哪种生物、宿主或寄生物，如果不能跟上其他生物的步伐，就会从它们的栖息地消失，因为平均适合度较高的物种会幸存下来。这一种族被称为红皇后假说。红皇后原则红皇后假说预测有性生殖可以让寄主在寄生虫之前保持领先，就像爱丽丝镜中奇遇的红皇后比赛一样: “你可以尽你所能地跑，保持在同一个地方。”。宿主进行有性繁殖，产生一些对寄生虫具有免疫力的后代，然后进化为应对措施。

The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual reproduction works thanks to ever-evolving host, parasite relationships |website=PhysOrg |url=https://phys.org/news/2011-07-sexual-reproduction-ever-evolving-host-parasite.html |date=7 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Morran, L.T. |author2=Schmidt, O.G. |author3=Gelarden, I.A. |author4=Parrish, R.C. II |author5= Lively, C.M. |title=Running with the Red Queen: Host-Parasite Coevolution Selects for Biparental Sex |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6039 |pages=216–8 |date=8 July 2011 |id=Science.1206360 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..216M |doi=10.1126/science.1206360 |pmid=21737739 |pmc=3402160}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Hogan, C. Michael |date=2010 |url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Virus |title=Virus |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Earth |editor=Cutler Cleveland |editor2=Sidney Draggan}}</ref> Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Anderson, R. |author2=May, R. |date=October 1982 |title=Coevolution of hosts and parasites |journal=Parasitology |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=411–426 |doi=10.1017/S0031182000055360 |pmid=6755367}}</ref>

The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual reproduction works thanks to ever-evolving host, parasite relationships |website=PhysOrg |url=https://phys.org/news/2011-07-sexual-reproduction-ever-evolving-host-parasite.html |date=7 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Morran, L.T. |author2=Schmidt, O.G. |author3=Gelarden, I.A. |author4=Parrish, R.C. II |author5= Lively, C.M. |title=Running with the Red Queen: Host-Parasite Coevolution Selects for Biparental Sex |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6039 |pages=216–8 |date=8 July 2011 |id=Science.1206360 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..216M |doi=10.1126/science.1206360 |pmid=21737739 |pmc=3402160}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Hogan, C. Michael |date=2010 |url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Virus |title=Virus |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Earth |editor=Cutler Cleveland |editor2=Sidney Draggan}}</ref> Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Anderson, R. |author2=May, R. |date=October 1982 |title=Coevolution of hosts and parasites |journal=Parasitology |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=411–426 |doi=10.1017/S0031182000055360 |pmid=6755367}}</ref>