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A biogeochemical cycle is the pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. There are biogeochemical cycles for chemical elements, such as for calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, iron and sulfur, as well as molecular cycles, such as for water and silica. There are also macroscopic cycles, such as the rock cycle, and human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance can remain or be sequestered for a long period of time.

A biogeochemical cycle is the pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. There are biogeochemical cycles for chemical elements, such as for calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, iron and sulfur, as well as molecular cycles, such as for water and silica. There are also macroscopic cycles, such as the rock cycle, and human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance can remain or be sequestered for a long period of time.

==Overview==

==Overview==

文件: 元素的生物地球化学循环.svg | 文件: whalepp.jpg | 海洋鲸鱼水泵显示鲸鱼如何通过海洋水柱循环养分文件: 全球碳循环.webp | 由于人类活动引起的全球碳循环变化的影响令科学家担忧 | Avelar，s. ，van der Voort，t.s。还有艾格林顿，t.i。(2017年)”海洋沉积物碳储存与海洋国家温室气体清单的相关性”。碳平衡与管理，12(1) : 10。.50px 材料复制自这个来源，可以在知识共享署名4.0国际许可证下获得。

文件: 元素的生物地球化学循环.svg | 文件: whalepp.jpg | 海洋中的“鲸泵”显示鲸鱼如何使得养分在大洋水柱中循环: 全球碳循环.webp | 人类活动引起的全球碳循环变化造成的影响令科学家们担忧 | Avelar，s. ，van der Voort，t.s。还有艾格林顿，t.i。(2017年)”海洋沉积物碳储存与海洋国家温室气体清单的相关性”。碳平衡与管理，12(1) : 10。.50px 材料复制自这个来源，可以在知识共享署名4.0国际许可证下获得。

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Although the Earth constantly receives energy from the sun, its chemical composition is essentially fixed, as the additional matter is only occasionally added by meteorites. Because this chemical composition is not replenished like energy, all processes that depend on these chemicals must be recycled. These cycles include both the living biosphere and the nonliving lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.

Although the Earth constantly receives energy from the sun, its chemical composition is essentially fixed, as the additional matter is only occasionally added by meteorites. Because this chemical composition is not replenished like energy, all processes that depend on these chemicals must be recycled. These cycles include both the living biosphere and the nonliving lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with [[geochemical cycle]]s. The latter deals only with [[Earth's crust|crustal]] and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with [[geochemical cycle]]s. The latter deals only with [[Earth's crust|crustal]] and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with geochemical cycles. The latter deals only with crustal and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with geochemical cycles. The latter deals only with crustal and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.

== Reservoirs ==

== Reservoirs ==

The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a reservoir, which, for example, includes such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a long period of time. When chemicals are held for only short periods of time, they are being held in exchange pools. Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.

The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a reservoir, which, for example, includes such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a long period of time. When chemicals are held for only short periods of time, they are being held in exchange pools. Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy.  Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium.  Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its [[residence time]] or [[turnover time]] (also called the renewal time or exit age).<ref name="carbon" />

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy.  Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium.  Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its [[residence time]] or [[turnover time]] (also called the renewal time or exit age).<ref name="carbon" />

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy.  Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium.  Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence time or turnover time (also called the renewal time or exit age).

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy.  Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium.  Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence time or turnover time (also called the renewal time or exit age).

==Box models==

==Box models==

thumb|upright=1|right|  

thumb|upright=1|right|  

= = 盒子模型 = = 拇指 | 竖直 = 1 | 右 |  

= = 箱模型 = = 拇指 | 竖直 = 1 | 右 |  

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems.<ref name=Sarmiento1984>{{cite journal| author = Sarmiento, J.L.|author2=Toggweiler, J.R.| year = 1984| title = A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2| journal = Nature| volume = 308| pages = 621–24| doi = 10.1038/308621a0| issue=5960 |bibcode = 1984Natur.308..621S |s2cid=4312683}}</ref><ref name=Bianchi2007>[[Thomas S. Bianchi|Bianchi, Thomas]] (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=3no8DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Biogeochemistry+of+Estuaries%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixq4PYm_brAhXYILcAHUVzBf0QuwUwAHoECAIQBw#v=onepage&q=%22Biogeochemistry%20of%20Estuaries%22&f=false ''Biogeochemistry of Estuaries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925012739/https://books.google.com/books?id=3no8DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Biogeochemistry+of+Estuaries%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixq4PYm_brAhXYILcAHUVzBf0QuwUwAHoECAIQBw#v=onepage&q=%22Biogeochemistry%20of%20Estuaries%22&f=false |date=2021-09-25 }} page 9, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195160826}}.</ref> Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage [[Thermodynamics#Instrumentation|reservoir]]s) for chemical materials, linked by material [[flux]]es (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously.<ref name=Bianchi2007 /> These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of  the chemical species involved.

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems.<ref name=Sarmiento1984>{{cite journal| author = Sarmiento, J.L.|author2=Toggweiler, J.R.| year = 1984| title = A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2| journal = Nature| volume = 308| pages = 621–24| doi = 10.1038/308621a0| issue=5960 |bibcode = 1984Natur.308..621S |s2cid=4312683}}</ref><ref name=Bianchi2007>[[Thomas S. Bianchi|Bianchi, Thomas]] (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=3no8DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Biogeochemistry+of+Estuaries%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixq4PYm_brAhXYILcAHUVzBf0QuwUwAHoECAIQBw#v=onepage&q=%22Biogeochemistry%20of%20Estuaries%22&f=false ''Biogeochemistry of Estuaries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925012739/https://books.google.com/books?id=3no8DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Biogeochemistry+of+Estuaries%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixq4PYm_brAhXYILcAHUVzBf0QuwUwAHoECAIQBw#v=onepage&q=%22Biogeochemistry%20of%20Estuaries%22&f=false |date=2021-09-25 }} page 9, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195160826}}.</ref> Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage [[Thermodynamics#Instrumentation|reservoir]]s) for chemical materials, linked by material [[flux]]es (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously.<ref name=Bianchi2007 /> These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of  the chemical species involved.

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems.Bianchi, Thomas (2007) Biogeochemistry of Estuaries  page 9, Oxford University Press. . Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage reservoirs) for chemical materials, linked by material fluxes (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously. These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of  the chemical species involved.

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems.Bianchi, Thomas (2007) Biogeochemistry of Estuaries  page 9, Oxford University Press. . Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage reservoirs) for chemical materials, linked by material fluxes (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously. These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of  the chemical species involved.

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material ''M'' under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source ''Q'' is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink ''S'' is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a [[steady state]] if ''Q'' = ''S'', that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.<ref name=Bianchi2007 />

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material ''M'' under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source ''Q'' is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink ''S'' is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a [[steady state]] if ''Q'' = ''S'', that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.<ref name=Bianchi2007 />

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material M under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source Q is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink S is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a steady state if Q = S, that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material M under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source Q is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink S is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a steady state if Q = S, that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.

右边的图表显示了一个基本的单箱模型。储层包含了正在考虑的物质 m 的数量，按照化学、物理或生物特性的定义。源 q 是流入储层的物质通量，汇 s 是流出储层的物质通量。预算是水库中影响物料周转的源和汇的制约和平衡。当 q = s 时，储层处于稳定状态，也就是说，如果源平衡汇而且随时间没有变化。

右图展示了一个基本的单箱模型。储库包含了所考虑的物质M的量，按照化学、物理或生物属性的定义。源Q是流入储库的物质通量，汇S是流出储库的物质通量。预算是影响储库内物质周转的源和汇的制衡。当Q = S，即源与汇处于平衡状态且不随时间变化时，储库处于稳态。

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S.<ref name=Bianchi2007 /> The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S.<ref name=Bianchi2007 /> The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S. The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S. The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is

停留时间或周转时间是物质在水库中停留的平均时间。如果水库处于稳定状态，这等于水库蓄水或排水所需的时间。因此，如果 τ 是周转时间，那么 τ = m/s。描述储层含量变化速率的方程是

停留时间或周转时间是物质在储库中停留的平均时间。如果储库处于稳态，其等于蓄满或排空储库所需的时间。因此，如果τ 是周转时间，那么 τ = M/S。描述储库物质含量变化率的方程为

::<math> \frac{dM}{dt} = Q - S = Q - \frac{M}{\tau}</math>

::<math> \frac{dM}{dt} = Q - S = Q - \frac{M}{\tau}</math>

When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoirs, and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow. More complex multibox models are usually solved using numerical techniques.

When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoirs, and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow. More complex multibox models are usually solved using numerical techniques.

[[File:Simplified budget of carbon flows in the ocean.png|thumb|upright=0.9|left| {{center|'''Simple three box model'''<br /> <small>simplified budget of ocean carbon flows{{hsp}}<ref name=Middelburg2019>Middelburg, J.J.(2019) ''Marine carbon biogeochemistry: a primer for earth system scientists'', page 5, Springer Nature. {{ISBN|9783030108229}}. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-10822-9}}. [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref></small>}}]]

[[File:Simplified budget of carbon flows in the ocean.png|thumb|upright=0.9|left| {{center|'''Simple three box model'''<br /> <small>simplified budget of ocean carbon flows{{hsp}}<ref name=Middelburg2019>Middelburg, J.J.(2019) ''Marine carbon biogeochemistry: a primer for earth system scientists'', page 5, Springer Nature. {{ISBN|9783030108229}}. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-10822-9}}. [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref></small>}}]]

The diagram on the left above shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon flows. It is composed of three simple interconnected box models, one for the euphotic zone, one for the ocean interior or dark ocean, and one for ocean sediments. In the euphotic zone, net phytoplankton production is about 50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired. Organic carbon degradation occurs as particles (marine snow) settle through the ocean interior. Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8 Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In sediments, the time scale available for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the result that 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C yr−1 is eventually buried and transferred from the biosphere to the geosphere.

The diagram on the left above shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon flows. It is composed of three simple interconnected box models, one for the euphotic zone, one for the ocean interior or dark ocean, and one for ocean sediments. In the euphotic zone, net phytoplankton production is about 50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired. Organic carbon degradation occurs as particles (marine snow) settle through the ocean interior. Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8 Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In sediments, the time scale available for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the result that 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C yr−1 is eventually buried and transferred from the biosphere to the geosphere.

上面左边的图表显示了海洋碳流动的简化预算。它由三个简单的相互连接的盒子模型组成，一个是透光层模型，一个是海洋内部或暗海洋模型，一个是海洋沉积物模型。在透光带，每年的净浮游植物生产量约为50 Pg c。大约10pg 出口到海洋内陆，其余40pg 则进行呼吸处理。有机碳降解发生在粒子(海洋雪)通过海洋内部沉降。最终只有2个 Pg 到达海底，而另外8个 Pg 则在黑暗的海洋中呼吸。在沉积物中，可用于降解的时间尺度每100秒数量级增加一次，结果是90% 的有机碳被降解，只有0.2 Pg c yr-1最终被掩埋并从生物圈转移到地圈。

左上图显示了海洋碳流动的简化预算。它由三个相互连通的简单箱模型组成，一个是真光层，一个是海洋内部或深海，一个是海洋沉积物。在真光层，浮游植物每年净生产量约为50Pg。大约10Pg被输送到海洋内部，其余40Pg则被呼吸作用消耗。有机碳的降解发生在颗粒（海洋雪）在海洋内部沉降的过程中。只有2Pg的碳最终到达海底，其余的8Pg在深海中被呼吸作用消耗。在沉积物中，可供降解的时间尺度增加了一个数量级，导致90%的有机碳被降解，最终只有0.2PgC yr^-1被埋藏并从生物圈转移到地圈。

The diagram on the right above shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir masses here represents ''carbon stocks'', measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr⁻¹, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the [[Industrial Revolution]]. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1063/1.1510279|title = Sinks for Anthropogenic Carbon|year = 2002|last1 = Sarmiento|first1 = Jorge L.|last2 = Gruber|first2 = Nicolas|journal = Physics Today|volume = 55|issue = 8|pages = 30–36|bibcode = 2002PhT....55h..30S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.13140/2.1.1081.8883|year = 2013|last1 = Chhabra|first1 = Abha|title = Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles}}</ref><ref name=Kandasamy2016>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmars.2016.00259|title = Perspectives on the Terrestrial Organic Matter Transport and Burial along the Land-Deep Sea Continuum: Caveats in Our Understanding of Biogeochemical Processes and Future Needs|year = 2016|last1 = Kandasamy|first1 = Selvaraj|last2 = Nagender Nath|first2 = Bejugam|journal = Frontiers in Marine Science|volume = 3|s2cid = 30408500|doi-access = free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref>

The diagram on the right above shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir masses here represents ''carbon stocks'', measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr⁻¹, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the [[Industrial Revolution]]. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1063/1.1510279|title = Sinks for Anthropogenic Carbon|year = 2002|last1 = Sarmiento|first1 = Jorge L.|last2 = Gruber|first2 = Nicolas|journal = Physics Today|volume = 55|issue = 8|pages = 30–36|bibcode = 2002PhT....55h..30S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.13140/2.1.1081.8883|year = 2013|last1 = Chhabra|first1 = Abha|title = Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles}}</ref><ref name=Kandasamy2016>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmars.2016.00259|title = Perspectives on the Terrestrial Organic Matter Transport and Burial along the Land-Deep Sea Continuum: Caveats in Our Understanding of Biogeochemical Processes and Future Needs|year = 2016|last1 = Kandasamy|first1 = Selvaraj|last2 = Nagender Nath|first2 = Bejugam|journal = Frontiers in Marine Science|volume = 3|s2cid = 30408500|doi-access = free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref>

The diagram on the right above shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir masses here represents carbon stocks, measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr−1, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the Industrial Revolution. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

The diagram on the right above shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir masses here represents carbon stocks, measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr−1, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the Industrial Revolution. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

上面右边的图表显示了一个包含许多交互框的更复杂的模型。这里的储存量代表碳储量，以 Pg c a r-1为单位测量碳交换通量，发生在大气层和它的两个主要吸收汇，陆地和海洋之间。黑色的数字和箭头表示的是1750年工业革命前的水库规模和交换通量。红色箭头(和相关数字)表示2000-2009年期间由于人为活动而产生的年通量变化。它们代表了自1750年以来碳循环的变化。水库中的红色数字代表自1750年至2011年工业时期开始以来人为碳的累积变化。50px 材料复制自这个来源，可以在知识共享署名4.0国际许可证下获得。

右上图显示了一个更复杂的模型，其中包含了许多相互作用的箱室。这里储库的质量代表碳储量，以Pg C为单位。碳交换通量以Pg C yr^-1为单位，出现于大气和两个主要的碳汇，陆地和海洋之间。黑色的数字和箭头表示了1750年（工业革命之前）的碳库含量和交换通量的估计值。红色的箭头和对应的数字代表了2000-2009年人类活动导致的碳通量变化的年平均值。它们显示了1750年以来碳循环的变化情况。储库中的红色数字表示了自1750年至2011年，即工业革命开始以来人为碳的累积变化。

{{clear}}

{{clear}}

==Compartments==

==Compartments==

= = 分隔 = =  

= = 隔室 = =  

===Biosphere===

===Biosphere===

Microorganisms drive much of the biogeochemical cycling in the earth system. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Microorganisms drive much of the biogeochemical cycling in the earth system. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

===Atmosphere===

===Atmosphere===

The global ocean covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface and is remarkably heterogeneous. Marine productive areas, and coastal ecosystems comprise a minor fraction of the ocean in terms of surface area, yet have an enormous impact on global biogeochemical cycles carried out by microbial communities, which represent 90% of the ocean's biomass. Work in recent years has largely focused on cycling of carbon and macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate: other important elements such as sulfur or trace elements have been less studied, reflecting associated technical and logistical issues. Increasingly, these marine areas, and the taxa that form their ecosystems, are subject to significant anthropogenic pressure, impacting marine life and recycling of energy and nutrients.Galton, D. (1884) 10th Meeting: report of the royal commission on metropolitan sewage . J. Soc. Arts, 33: 290. A key example is that of cultural eutrophication, where agricultural runoff leads to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment of coastal ecosystems, greatly increasing productivity resulting in algal blooms, deoxygenation of the water column and seabed, and increased greenhouse gas emissions, with direct local and global impacts on nitrogen and carbon cycles. However, the runoff of organic matter from the mainland to coastal ecosystems is just one of a series of pressing threats stressing microbial communities due to global change. Climate change has also resulted in changes in the cryosphere, as glaciers and permafrost melt, resulting in intensified marine stratification, while shifts of the redox-state in different biomes are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an unprecedented rate. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

The global ocean covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface and is remarkably heterogeneous. Marine productive areas, and coastal ecosystems comprise a minor fraction of the ocean in terms of surface area, yet have an enormous impact on global biogeochemical cycles carried out by microbial communities, which represent 90% of the ocean's biomass. Work in recent years has largely focused on cycling of carbon and macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate: other important elements such as sulfur or trace elements have been less studied, reflecting associated technical and logistical issues. Increasingly, these marine areas, and the taxa that form their ecosystems, are subject to significant anthropogenic pressure, impacting marine life and recycling of energy and nutrients.Galton, D. (1884) 10th Meeting: report of the royal commission on metropolitan sewage . J. Soc. Arts, 33: 290. A key example is that of cultural eutrophication, where agricultural runoff leads to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment of coastal ecosystems, greatly increasing productivity resulting in algal blooms, deoxygenation of the water column and seabed, and increased greenhouse gas emissions, with direct local and global impacts on nitrogen and carbon cycles. However, the runoff of organic matter from the mainland to coastal ecosystems is just one of a series of pressing threats stressing microbial communities due to global change. Climate change has also resulted in changes in the cryosphere, as glaciers and permafrost melt, resulting in intensified marine stratification, while shifts of the redox-state in different biomes are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an unprecedented rate. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

全球海洋覆盖了地球表面的70% 以上，而且非常不均匀。海洋生产区和沿海生态系统只占海洋表面积的一小部分，但却对微生物群落执行的全球生物地球化学循环产生巨大影响，微生物群落占海洋生物量的90% 。近年来的工作主要集中在碳和大量营养元素的循环，如氮、磷和硅酸盐: 其他重要元素，如硫和微量元素的研究较少，反映了相关的技术和后勤问题。这些海域以及形成其生态系统的分类群正日益受到人类活动的巨大压力，影响着海洋生物以及能量和营养物质的循环。高尔顿(1884)第十次会议: 皇家污水处理委员会报告。J. Soc.33:290.一个关键的例子是文化富营养化，农业径流导致沿海生态系统的氮和磷富集，大大提高生产力，造成藻类大量繁殖，水体和海床脱氧，温室气体排放增加，对氮和碳循环产生直接的地方和全球影响。然而，有机物从大陆流入沿海生态系统只是全球变化对微生物群落造成的一系列紧迫威胁之一。气候变化还导致冰冻圈的变化，冰川和永久冻土融化，加剧了海洋分层，而不同生物群中的氧化还原状态的变化正在以前所未有的速度迅速重塑微生物群落。50px 材料复制自这个来源，可以在知识共享署名4.0国际许可证下获得。

海洋覆盖了地球表面的70%以上，并且具有很强的异质性。海洋生产区和沿海生态系统只占海洋表面积的一小部分，但对微生物群落（占海洋生物量的90%）所进行的全球生物地球化学循环有着巨大的影响。近年来的工作主要集中在碳和常量营养元素（如氮、磷和硅酸盐）的循环上，对其它重要元素（如硫或微量元素）的研究较少，反映的相关的技术和后勤问题。这些海域以及构成其生态系统的分类群正日益受到人类活动的巨大压力，影响着海洋生物以及能量和营养物质的循环。一个关键的例子是人为富营养化的影响，农业生产的径流导致沿海生态系统的氮和磷富集，使生产力大大提高并造成藻类大量繁殖，水体和海床脱氧，温室气体排放增加，直接影响了区域和全球的氮循环和碳循环。然而，有机物从大陆流入沿海生态系统只是全球变化对微生物群落造成的一系列胁迫之一。气候变化还导致了冰冻圈的变化，冰川和永久冻土融化加剧了海洋分层，而不同生物群落中氧化还原状态的变化正以前所未有的速度迅速重塑微生物组合。

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including [[Marine primary production|primary productivity]], CO₂ and N₂ fixation, organic matter respiration/[[remineralization]], and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO₂.<ref name=Hutchins2019 /> In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an [[Ocean acidification|acidification process]], with a change of ~0.1 [[pH]] units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting [[carbonate]]/[[bicarbonate]] [[Buffering agent|buffer]] chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact [[planktonic]] communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1242/jeb.115584|title = Biochemical adaptation to ocean acidification|year = 2015|last1 = Stillman|first1 = Jonathon H.|last2 = Paganini|first2 = Adam W.|journal = Journal of Experimental Biology|volume = 218|issue = 12|pages = 1946–1955|pmid = 26085671|s2cid = 13071345}}</ref> There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N₂O and CH₄, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018,<ref name=Breitburg2018 /> due to the increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called [[oxygen minimum zone]]s{{hsp}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/s41579-018-0087-z|title = Microbial niches in marine oxygen minimum zones|year = 2018|last1 = Bertagnolli|first1 = Anthony D.|last2 = Stewart|first2 = Frank J.|journal = Nature Reviews Microbiology|volume = 16|issue = 12|pages = 723–729|pmid = 30250271|s2cid = 52811177}}</ref> or [[Anoxic waters|anoxic]] marine zones,<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1205009109|title = Microbial oceanography of anoxic oxygen minimum zones|year = 2012|last1 = Ulloa|first1 = O.|last2 = Canfield|first2 = D. E.|last3 = Delong|first3 = E. F.|last4 = Letelier|first4 = R. M.|last5 = Stewart|first5 = F. J.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 109|issue = 40|pages = 15996–16003|pmid = 22967509|pmc = 3479542|bibcode = 2012PNAS..10915996U|s2cid = 6630698|doi-access = free}}</ref> driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine [[nekton]], including reduced sulfur species such as H₂S, have a negative impact for marine resources like fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.<ref name=Cavicchioli2019 /><ref name=Murillo2019 />

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including [[Marine primary production|primary productivity]], CO₂ and N₂ fixation, organic matter respiration/[[remineralization]], and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO₂.<ref name=Hutchins2019 /> In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an [[Ocean acidification|acidification process]], with a change of ~0.1 [[pH]] units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting [[carbonate]]/[[bicarbonate]] [[Buffering agent|buffer]] chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact [[planktonic]] communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1242/jeb.115584|title = Biochemical adaptation to ocean acidification|year = 2015|last1 = Stillman|first1 = Jonathon H.|last2 = Paganini|first2 = Adam W.|journal = Journal of Experimental Biology|volume = 218|issue = 12|pages = 1946–1955|pmid = 26085671|s2cid = 13071345}}</ref> There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N₂O and CH₄, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018,<ref name=Breitburg2018 /> due to the increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called [[oxygen minimum zone]]s{{hsp}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/s41579-018-0087-z|title = Microbial niches in marine oxygen minimum zones|year = 2018|last1 = Bertagnolli|first1 = Anthony D.|last2 = Stewart|first2 = Frank J.|journal = Nature Reviews Microbiology|volume = 16|issue = 12|pages = 723–729|pmid = 30250271|s2cid = 52811177}}</ref> or [[Anoxic waters|anoxic]] marine zones,<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1205009109|title = Microbial oceanography of anoxic oxygen minimum zones|year = 2012|last1 = Ulloa|first1 = O.|last2 = Canfield|first2 = D. E.|last3 = Delong|first3 = E. F.|last4 = Letelier|first4 = R. M.|last5 = Stewart|first5 = F. J.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 109|issue = 40|pages = 15996–16003|pmid = 22967509|pmc = 3479542|bibcode = 2012PNAS..10915996U|s2cid = 6630698|doi-access = free}}</ref> driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine [[nekton]], including reduced sulfur species such as H₂S, have a negative impact for marine resources like fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.<ref name=Cavicchioli2019 /><ref name=Murillo2019 />

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2 fixation, organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO2. In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an acidification process, with a change of ~0.1 pH units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting carbonate/bicarbonate buffer chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact planktonic communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa. There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N2O and CH4, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018, due to the increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called oxygen minimum zones or anoxic marine zones, driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine nekton, including reduced sulfur species such as H2S, have a negative impact for marine resources like fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2 fixation, organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO2. In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an acidification process, with a change of ~0.1 pH units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting carbonate/bicarbonate buffer chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact planktonic communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa. There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N2O and CH4, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018, due to the increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called oxygen minimum zones or anoxic marine zones, driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine nekton, including reduced sulfur species such as H2S, have a negative impact for marine resources like fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.

因此，全球变化影响着关键过程，包括初级生产力、 co2和 n2的固定、有机物呼吸/再矿化以及固定 co2的沉积和埋藏。此外，海洋正在经历酸化过程，从工业化前到今天，pH 值变化为0.1，影响碳酸盐/重碳酸盐缓冲化学。据报道，酸化反过来影响浮游生物群落，主要是通过对钙化类群的影响。还有证据表明，关键的中间挥发性产品的生产发生了变化，其中一些产品具有明显的温室效应(例如，由于全球温度升高、海洋分层和脱氧，在微生物过程驱动的所谓最低含氧区或缺氧海洋区，导致多达25% 至50% 的氮从海洋流失到大气中。其他产品，包括硫磺物种的减少，如 H2S，对海洋资源如渔业和沿海水产养殖产生负面影响。虽然全球变化加速，但人们对海洋生态系统的复杂性，特别是微生物作为生态系统运作的驱动者的根本作用的认识也同时提高。

因此，全球变化正在影响着关键过程，包括净初级生产力，CO₂和N₂固定，有机物呼吸/再矿化以及固定CO₂的沉积和埋藏。除此之外，海洋正在经历酸化过程，从前工业化时期到如今pH值变化了约0.1个单位，影响了碳酸盐和碳酸氢盐缓冲的化学过程。反过来，酸化主要通过对钙化类群的影响从而影响浮游生物群落。还有证据表明，关键的中间挥发性产物的生产过程发生了变化，其中一些产物具有明显的温室效应（例如N₂O和CH⁴，Breitburg在2018年的综述中所言。由于全球温度升高，海洋分层和脱氧，在所谓的最低含氧区或缺氧海洋区由于微生物的驱动导致大洋中25%-50%的氮损失到大气中）。其它对海洋自游生物有毒的产物，包括诸如H₂S等硫的还原产物，对渔业和沿海水产养殖等海洋资源有负面影响。虽然全球变化加速，但人们对海洋生态系统复杂性的认识也在同步提高，尤其是微生物作为生态系统功能驱动因素的基本作用。

===Lithosphere===

===Lithosphere===

There are fast and slow biogeochemical cycles. Fast cycle operate in the biosphere and slow cycles operate in rocks. Fast or biological cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles can take millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.Libes, Susan M. (2015). Blue planet: The role of the oceans in nutrient cycling, maintain the atmosphere system, and modulating climate change  In: Routledge Handbook of Ocean Resources and Management, Routledge, pages 89–107. .

There are fast and slow biogeochemical cycles. Fast cycle operate in the biosphere and slow cycles operate in rocks. Fast or biological cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles can take millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.Libes, Susan M. (2015). Blue planet: The role of the oceans in nutrient cycling, maintain the atmosphere system, and modulating climate change  In: Routledge Handbook of Ocean Resources and Management, Routledge, pages 89–107. .

有快速和慢速的生物地球化学循环。快速循环在生物圈中运行，慢速循环在岩石中运行。快速或生物周期可以在年内完成，将物质从大气层转移到生物圈，然后返回大气层。缓慢或地质周期可能需要数百万年才能完成，在岩石、土壤、海洋和大气之间穿过地壳的物质移动。苏珊 · m · 利贝斯(Susan m.)(2015)。《蓝色星球: 海洋在营养循环、维持大气系统和调节气候变化中的作用》 ，载于《路特雷奇海洋资源和管理手册》 ，路特雷奇，第89-107页。.

生物地球化学循环包括快速和慢速循环。快速循环在生物圈中运行，慢速循环在岩石中运行。快速循环或生物循环可以在数年内完成，将物质从大气转移到生物圈，再转移到大气。慢速或地质循环可能需要数百万年才能完成，使物质穿过岩石、土壤、海洋和大气在地壳中运移。.

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle involves relatively short-term [[biogeochemical]] processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and [[seafloor sediments]]. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.<ref name=Bush2020 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.022055499|title = Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for the last 500 million years|year = 2002|last1 = Rothman|first1 = D. H.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 99|issue = 7|pages = 4167–4171|pmid = 11904360|pmc = 123620|bibcode = 2002PNAS...99.4167R|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name=Carpinteri2019>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3390/sci1010017|title = Correlation between the Fluctuations in Worldwide Seismicity and Atmospheric Carbon Pollution|year = 2019|last1 = Carpinteri|first1 = Alberto|last2 = Niccolini|first2 = Gianni|journal = Sci|volume = 1|page = 17|doi-access = free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rothman|first=Daniel|date=January 2015|title=Earth's carbon cycle: A mathematical perspective|url=https://www.ams.org/bull/2015-52-01/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5/|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|language=en|volume=52|issue=1|pages=47–64|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5|issn=0273-0979|hdl=1721.1/97900|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-09-27|archive-date=2021-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122221018/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2015-52-01/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5/|url-status=live}}</ref>

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle involves relatively short-term [[biogeochemical]] processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and [[seafloor sediments]]. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.<ref name=Bush2020 /><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.022055499|title = Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for the last 500 million years|year = 2002|last1 = Rothman|first1 = D. H.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 99|issue = 7|pages = 4167–4171|pmid = 11904360|pmc = 123620|bibcode = 2002PNAS...99.4167R|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name=Carpinteri2019>{{cite journal |doi = 10.3390/sci1010017|title = Correlation between the Fluctuations in Worldwide Seismicity and Atmospheric Carbon Pollution|year = 2019|last1 = Carpinteri|first1 = Alberto|last2 = Niccolini|first2 = Gianni|journal = Sci|volume = 1|page = 17|doi-access = free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rothman|first=Daniel|date=January 2015|title=Earth's carbon cycle: A mathematical perspective|url=https://www.ams.org/bull/2015-52-01/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5/|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|language=en|volume=52|issue=1|pages=47–64|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5|issn=0273-0979|hdl=1721.1/97900|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-09-27|archive-date=2021-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122221018/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2015-52-01/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5/|url-status=live}}</ref>

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle involves relatively short-term biogeochemical processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle involves relatively short-term biogeochemical processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|left| The fast cycle operates through the biosphere, including exchanges between land, atmosphere, and oceans. The yellow numbers are natural fluxes of carbon in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Red are human contributions and white are stored carbon.<ref name="nasacc">{{cite web|last1=Riebeek|first1=Holli|title=The Carbon Cycle|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|website=Earth Observatory|publisher=NASA|access-date=5 April 2018|date=16 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010126/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]

[[File:Carbon cycle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|left| The fast cycle operates through the biosphere, including exchanges between land, atmosphere, and oceans. The yellow numbers are natural fluxes of carbon in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Red are human contributions and white are stored carbon.<ref name="nasacc">{{cite web|last1=Riebeek|first1=Holli|title=The Carbon Cycle|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|website=Earth Observatory|publisher=NASA|access-date=5 April 2018|date=16 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010126/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]

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The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term [[geochemical]] processes belonging to the [[rock cycle]]. The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the [[weathering]] of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form [[sedimentary rock]] and be [[subducted]] into the [[earth's mantle]]. [[Mountain building]] processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by [[degassing]] and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the [[Hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal emission]] of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.<ref name=Libes2015 /><ref name=Bush2020>{{cite book|doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-15424-0_3|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h_60DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Climate+Change+and+Renewable+Energy%22+%22The+Carbon+Cycle%22chapter+%3D+The+Carbon+Cycle&pg=PA109|title = Climate Change and Renewable Energy|year = 2020|last1 = Bush|first1 = Martin J.|pages = 109–141|isbn = 978-3-030-15423-3|s2cid = 210305910|access-date = 2021-09-27|archive-date = 2021-09-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210927001642/https://books.google.com/books?id=h_60DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Climate+Change+and+Renewable+Energy%22+%22The+Carbon+Cycle%22chapter+%3D+The+Carbon+Cycle&pg=PA109|url-status = live}}</ref>

The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term [[geochemical]] processes belonging to the [[rock cycle]]. The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the [[weathering]] of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form [[sedimentary rock]] and be [[subducted]] into the [[earth's mantle]]. [[Mountain building]] processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by [[degassing]] and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the [[Hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal emission]] of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.<ref name=Libes2015 /><ref name="Bush2020">{{cite book|doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-15424-0_3|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h_60DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Climate+Change+and+Renewable+Energy%22+%22The+Carbon+Cycle%22chapter+%3D+The+Carbon+Cycle&pg=PA109|title = Climate Change and Renewable Energy|year = 2020|last1 = Bush|first1 = Martin J.|pages = 109–141|isbn = 978-3-030-15423-3|s2cid = 210305910|access-date = 2021-09-27|archive-date = 2021-09-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210927001642/https://books.google.com/books?id=h_60DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Climate+Change+and+Renewable+Energy%22+%22The+Carbon+Cycle%22chapter+%3D+The+Carbon+Cycle&pg=PA109|url-status = live}}</ref>

The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term geochemical processes belonging to the rock cycle. The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form sedimentary rock and be subducted into the earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.

The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term geochemical processes belonging to the rock cycle. The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form sedimentary rock and be subducted into the earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.