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{{Presynaptic_synapse}}

{{Presynaptic_synapse}}

In the [[nervous system]], a '''synapse'''<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Foster|first1=M.|last2=Sherrington|first2=C.S.|title=Textbook of Physiology, volume 3|date=1897|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|page=929|edition=7th}}</ref> is a structure that permits a [[neuron]] (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.

In the [[nervous system]], a '''synapse'''<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Foster|first1=M.|last2=Sherrington|first2=C.S.|title=Textbook of Physiology, volume 3|date=1897|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|page=929|edition=7th}}</ref> is a structure that permits a [[neuron]] (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.

In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.

In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.

Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the [[plasma membrane]] of the signal-passing neuron (the ''presynaptic'' neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (''postsynaptic'') cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of [[Molecular biology|molecular machinery]] that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an [[axon]] and the postsynaptic part is located on a [[dendrite]] or [[soma (biology)|soma]]. [[Astrocyte]]s also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating [[neurotransmission]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perea |first1=G. |last2=Navarrete |first2=M. |last3=Araque |first3=A. |date=August 2009 |title=Tripartite synapses: astrocytes process and control synaptic information |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Neurosciences]] |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=421–431 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |pmid=19615761 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.001 |s2cid=16355401 }}</ref> Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 3312681 | pmid=22278667 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a005694 | volume=4 | issue=4 | title=Synaptic cell adhesion | year=2012 | journal=Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol | pages=a005694 | last1 = Missler | first1 = M | last2 = Südhof | first2 = TC | last3 = Biederer | first3 = T}}</ref>

Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the [[plasma membrane]] of the signal-passing neuron (the ''presynaptic'' neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (''postsynaptic'') cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of [[Molecular biology|molecular machinery]] that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an [[axon]] and the postsynaptic part is located on a [[dendrite]] or [[soma (biology)|soma]]. [[Astrocyte]]s also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating [[neurotransmission]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perea |first1=G. |last2=Navarrete |first2=M. |last3=Araque |first3=A. |date=August 2009 |title=Tripartite synapses: astrocytes process and control synaptic information |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Neurosciences]] |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=421–431 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |pmid=19615761 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.001 |s2cid=16355401 }}</ref> Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 3312681 | pmid=22278667 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a005694 | volume=4 | issue=4 | title=Synaptic cell adhesion | year=2012 | journal=Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol | pages=a005694 | last1 = Missler | first1 = M | last2 = Südhof | first2 = TC | last3 = Biederer | first3 = T}}</ref>

Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (postsynaptic) cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of molecular machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon and the postsynaptic part is located on a dendrite or soma. Astrocytes also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating neurotransmission. Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.

Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (postsynaptic) cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of molecular machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon and the postsynaptic part is located on a dendrite or soma. Astrocytes also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating neurotransmission. Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.

突触是神经冲动从一个神经元传递到另一个神经元的必要条件。神经元是专门向单个目标细胞传递信号的，神经突触是它们传递信号的手段。在突触处，信号传递神经元(突触前神经元)的质膜与目标细胞(突触后细胞)的质膜紧密相连。突触前和突触后位点都包含大量的分子结构阵列，这些分子结构连接两个膜并执行信号传导过程。在许多突触中，突触前部分位于轴突，突触后部分位于树突或胞体上。星形胶质细胞也与突触神经元交换信息，对突触活动做出反应，从而调节神经传导。突触(至少是化学突触)通过突触前和突触后神经元发出的突触粘附分子(SAMs)并在它们重叠的地方粘附在一起而稳定在位置上; SAMs 也可能有助于突触的产生和功能。

突触对于神经冲动在神经元之间传递是至关重要的。神经元是特化的向靶细胞传递信号的细胞，突触正是它们传递信号的手段。在突触处，传递信号的神经元（突触前神经元）与的质膜与目标细胞(突触后细胞)的质膜紧密相连。突触前和突触后位点都包含大量的分子结构阵列，这些分子结构连接两个膜并执行信号传导过程。在许多突触中，突触前部分位于轴突，突触后部分位于树突或胞体上。星形胶质细胞也与突触神经元交换信息，对突触活动做出反应，从而调节神经传导。突触(至少是化学突触)通过突触前和突触后神经元发出的突触粘附分子(SAMs)并在它们重叠的地方粘附在一起而稳定在位置上; SAMs 也可能有助于突触的产生和功能。

 

Some authors generalize the concept of the synapse to include the communication from a neuron to any other cell type,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=Daniel L. |author-link1=Daniel Schacter |last2=Gilbert |first2=Daniel T. |author-link2=Daniel Gilbert (psychologist) |last3=Wegner |first3=Daniel M. |author-link3=Daniel Wegner |title=Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |year=2011 |publisher=Worth Publishers |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/80 80] |isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2 |oclc=696604625 |lccn=2010940234}}</ref> such as to a motor cell, although such non-neuronal contacts may be referred to as [[Neuromuscular Junction|junctions]] (a historically older term). A landmark study by [[Sanford Palay]] demonstrated the existence of synapses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palay|first=Sanford|title=Synapses in the central nervous system|journal=J Biophys Biochem Cytol|volume=2|issue=4|pages=193–202|doi=10.1083/jcb.2.4.193|pmc=2229686|pmid=13357542|year=1956}}</ref>

Some authors generalize the concept of the synapse to include the communication from a neuron to any other cell type,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=Daniel L. |author-link1=Daniel Schacter |last2=Gilbert |first2=Daniel T. |author-link2=Daniel Gilbert (psychologist) |last3=Wegner |first3=Daniel M. |author-link3=Daniel Wegner |title=Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |year=2011 |publisher=Worth Publishers |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/80 80] |isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2 |oclc=696604625 |lccn=2010940234}}</ref> such as to a motor cell, although such non-neuronal contacts may be referred to as [[Neuromuscular Junction|junctions]] (a historically older term). A landmark study by [[Sanford Palay]] demonstrated the existence of synapses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palay|first=Sanford|title=Synapses in the central nervous system|journal=J Biophys Biochem Cytol|volume=2|issue=4|pages=193–202|doi=10.1083/jcb.2.4.193|pmc=2229686|pmid=13357542|year=1956}}</ref>

然而，虽然突触间隙仍然是一个理论上的构造，有时被报道为轴突末端与树突或细胞体之间的不连续性，但是使用当时最好的光学显微镜的组织学方法无法直观地解决它们的分离问题，现在我们知道它们大约在20纳米左右。它需要在20世纪50年代的电子显微镜显示突触的精细结构，它的独立的，平行的突触前和突触后膜和过程，以及两者之间的裂隙。

然而，虽然突触间隙仍然是一个理论上的构造，有时被报道为轴突末端与树突或细胞体之间的不连续性，但是使用当时最好的光学显微镜的组织学方法无法直观地解决它们的分离问题，现在我们知道它们大约在20纳米左右。它需要在20世纪50年代的电子显微镜显示突触的精细结构，它的独立的，平行的突触前和突触后膜和过程，以及两者之间的裂隙。

==Chemical and electrical synapses==

==Chemical and electrical synapses电突触和化学突触==

[[File:Neuro Muscular Junction.png|thumb|An example of chemical synapse by the release of [[neurotransmitter]]s like [[acetylcholine]] or [[glutamic acid]].]]

[[File:Neuro Muscular Junction.png|thumb|An example of chemical synapse by the release of [[neurotransmitter]]s like [[acetylcholine]] or [[glutamic acid]].|链接=Special:FilePath/Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png]]

There are two fundamentally different types of synapses:

There are two fundamentally different types of synapses:

* In a [[chemical synapse]], electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation of [[Voltage-dependent calcium channel|voltage-gated calcium channels]]) into the release of a chemical called a [[neurotransmitter]] that binds to [[neurotransmitter receptor|receptors]] located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses can be classified according to the neurotransmitter released: [[Glutamic acid|glutamatergic]] (often excitatory), [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|GABAergic]] (often inhibitory), [[cholinergic]] (e.g. vertebrate [[neuromuscular junction]]), and [[Adrenergic receptor|adrenergic]] (releasing [[norepinephrine]]). Because of the complexity of receptor [[signal transduction]], chemical synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell.

* In a [[chemical synapse]], electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation of [[Voltage-dependent calcium channel|voltage-gated calcium channels]]) into the release of a chemical called a [[neurotransmitter]] that binds to [[neurotransmitter receptor|receptors]] located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses can be classified according to the neurotransmitter released: [[Glutamic acid|glutamatergic]] (often excitatory), [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|GABAergic]] (often inhibitory), [[cholinergic]] (e.g. vertebrate [[neuromuscular junction]]), and [[Adrenergic receptor|adrenergic]] (releasing [[norepinephrine]]). Because of the complexity of receptor [[signal transduction]], chemical synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell.

* In an [[electrical synapse]], the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called [[gap junction]]s that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.<ref>{{cite book |last=Silverthorn |first=Dee Unglaub |others=Illustration coordinator William C. Ober; illustrations by Claire W. Garrison; clinical consultant Andrew C. Silverthorn; contributions by Bruce R. Johnson |title=Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach |edition=4th |year=2007 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson/Benjamin Cummings]] |location=San Francisco |page=271 |isbn=978-0-8053-6851-2 |oclc=62742632 |lccn=2005056517}}</ref>

* In an [[electrical synapse]], the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called [[gap junction]]s that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Silverthorn |first=Dee Unglaub |others=Illustration coordinator William C. Ober; illustrations by Claire W. Garrison; clinical consultant Andrew C. Silverthorn; contributions by Bruce R. Johnson |title=Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach |edition=4th |year=2007 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson/Benjamin Cummings]] |location=San Francisco |page=271 |isbn=978-0-8053-6851-2 |oclc=62742632 |lccn=2005056517}}</ref>

* In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called gap junctions that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.

* In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called gap junctions that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.

= = 化学和电突触 = = 有两种基本不同类型的突触:

= = 化学和电突触 = = 存在两种完全不同的类型的突触：

* 在突触前突触间隙，突触前神经元的电活动(通过激活电压门控钙通道)转化为释放一种叫做神经递质的化学物质，这种化学物质与位于突触后细胞质膜上的受体结合。神经递质可以启动电反应或次级信使通路，可以激发或抑制突触后神经元。化学突触可以根据释放的神经递质进行分类: 谷氨酸能(通常是兴奋性的)、 gaba 能(通常是抑制性的)、胆碱能(通常是抑制性的)。脊椎动物神经肌肉接点)和肾上腺素(释放去甲肾上腺素)。由于受体信号转导的复杂性，化学突触可以对突触后细胞产生复杂的影响。

* 在化学突触，突触前神经元的电活动（通过激活电压门控钙通道）被转化为称为神经递质的化学物质的释放。神经递质可与位于突触后细胞质膜上的受体结合，从而引起电反应，或第二信使通路激发或抑制突触后神经元。化学突触可以根据释放的神经递质进行分类： 谷氨酸能(通常是兴奋性的)、GABA能(通常是抑制性的)、胆碱能(通常是抑制性的)。脊椎动物神经肌肉接点)和肾上腺素(释放去甲肾上腺素)。由于受体信号转导的复杂性，化学突触可以对突触后细胞产生复杂的影响。

* 在突触前细胞膜和突触后细胞膜通过特殊的通道连接，这种通道被称为缝隙连接，能够通过电流，导致突触前细胞的电压变化引起突触后细胞的电压变化。电突触的主要优点是信号可以从一个细胞快速传输到下一个细胞。

* 电突触，突触前细胞膜和突触后细胞膜通过特殊的称为缝隙连接的通道蛋白连接。缝隙连接能够通过电流，使得突触前细胞的电压变化引起突触后细胞的电位变化。电突触的主要优点是细胞间的信号传递是极快的。<ref name=":1" />

Synaptic communication is distinct from an [[ephaptic coupling]], in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields.

Synaptic communication is distinct from an [[ephaptic coupling]], in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields.

Synaptic communication is distinct from an ephaptic coupling, in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields.

Synaptic communication is distinct from an ephaptic coupling, in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields.

An [[autapse]] is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron.

An [[autapse]] is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron.

 

==Types of interfaces==

==Types of interfaces==

==Types of interfaces==

==Types of interfaces==

= = = 接口类型 = =  

= = = 接口类型 =接合类型 =  

Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to [[Axo-axonic synapse|axo-axonic]], [[Dendrodendritic synapse|dendro-dendritic]], axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.

Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to [[Axo-axonic synapse|axo-axonic]], [[Dendrodendritic synapse|dendro-dendritic]], axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.

Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to axo-axonic, dendro-dendritic, axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.

Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to axo-axonic, dendro-dendritic, axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.

突触可以按照作为突触前和突触后成分的细胞结构类型进行分类。哺乳动物神经系统中的绝大多数突触是典型的轴突-树突突触(轴突与树突之间的突触) ，然而，还存在其他各种排列方式。这些突触包括但不限于轴-轴突突触、树突-树突突触、轴-分泌突触、体-树突触、树突-体突触和体-体突触。

突触可以按构成突触前和突触后的细胞结构类型进行分类。哺乳动物神经系统中的绝大多数突触是典型的轴树突触(轴突到树突的突触) ，然而，还存在其他的不同排列方式。这些突触包括但不限于轴轴突触、树树突触、轴分泌突触、体树突触、树体突触和体体突触。

The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.

The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.

[[File:Blausen 0843 SynapseTypes.png|thumb|500px|center|Different types of synapses]]

[[File:Blausen 0843 SynapseTypes.png|thumb|500px|center|Different types of synapses|链接=Special:FilePath/Blausen_0843_SynapseTypes.png]]

The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.

The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.

thumb|500px|center|Different types of synapses

thumb|500px|center|Different types of synapses

轴突可以与树突、细胞体、另一个轴突或轴突终末形成突触，也可以进入血液或扩散到邻近的神经组织。拇指 | 500px | 中心 | 不同类型的突触

 

拇指 | 500px | 中心 | 不同类型的突触

==Role in memory==

==Role in memory 记忆中的作用==

{{Main|Hebbian theory}}

{{Main|Hebbian theory}}

It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a role in the formation of [[memory]]. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as [[long-term potentiation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lynch |first=M. A. |date=January 1, 2004 |title=Long-Term Potentiation and Memory |journal=[[Physiological Reviews]] |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=87–136 |pmid=14715912 |doi=10.1152/physrev.00014.2003 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/896261 }}</ref>

It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a role in the formation of [[memory]]. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as [[long-term potentiation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lynch |first=M. A. |date=January 1, 2004 |title=Long-Term Potentiation and Memory |journal=[[Physiological Reviews]] |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=87–136 |pmid=14715912 |doi=10.1152/physrev.00014.2003 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/896261 }}</ref>

It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a role in the formation of memory. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as long-term potentiation.

It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a role in the formation of memory. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as long-term potentiation.

By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a [[NMDA|N-methyl-d-aspartic acid]] receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and [[long-term depression]] (LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krugers |first1=Harm J. |last2=Zhou |first2=Ming |last3=Joëls |first3= Marian |last4=Kindt |first4=Merel |date=October 11, 2011 |title=Regulation of Excitatory Synapses and Fearful Memories by Stress Hormones |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=5 |pages=62 |location=Switzerland |publisher=[[Frontiers (publisher)|Frontiers Media SA]] |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00062 |pmc=3190121 |pmid=22013419|doi-access=free }}</ref>

By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a [[NMDA|N-methyl-d-aspartic acid]] receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and [[long-term depression]] (LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krugers |first1=Harm J. |last2=Zhou |first2=Ming |last3=Joëls |first3= Marian |last4=Kindt |first4=Merel |date=October 11, 2011 |title=Regulation of Excitatory Synapses and Fearful Memories by Stress Hormones |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=5 |pages=62 |location=Switzerland |publisher=[[Frontiers (publisher)|Frontiers Media SA]] |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00062 |pmc=3190121 |pmid=22013419|doi-access=free }}</ref>

By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.

By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.

通过改变神经递质的释放，突触的可塑性可以在突触前细胞中得到控制。突触后细胞可以通过改变其受体的数量和功能来调节。突触后信号通路的改变主要与依赖于 n- 甲基天冬氨酸受体(NMDAR)的突触后细胞(LTP)和长期抑郁(LTD)有关，后者是兴奋性突触可塑性的最常见分析形式。

突触的可塑性可以通过改变神经递质的释放，在突触前细胞中进行控制；也可以通过改变其受体的数量和功能，在突触后细胞进行调节。突触后信号的改变，多与突触后细胞钙内流引起的N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸受体(NMDAR)依赖的长时程增强和长时程抑制有关。LTP和LTD是研究最多的兴奋性突触可塑性形式。

==Study models==

==Study models==