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共同演化 (查看源代码)

2023年1月1日 (日) 02:26的版本

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====昆虫和昆虫传粉的花朵====

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[[File:Apis mellifera - Melilotus albus - Keila.jpg|thumb~~|upright~~|蜜蜂在白草木犀属花朵的花粉筐中采集花粉并获得奖励花蜜|链接=Special:FilePath/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg]]

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[[File:Apis mellifera - Melilotus albus - Keila.jpg|thumb|蜜蜂在白草木犀属花朵的花粉筐中采集花粉并获得奖励花蜜|链接=Special:FilePath/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg|238x238像素]]

现代[[entomophily|昆虫传粉（虫媒）的花朵]]明显与昆虫相互适应以确保授粉，并以花蜜和花粉回馈[[pollinator|授粉者]]；这两组群体已经共同演化了超过1亿年，创造了一个复杂的互动网络；它们要么一同演化，要么在后期的某些阶段一同演化——并很可能伴随着预适应，在之后达到了如此充分的相互适应性。<ref name="Lunau">{{cite journal |last1=Lunau |first1=Klaus |title=Adaptive radiation and coevolution — pollination biology case studies |journal=Organisms Diversity & Evolution |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.02.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Pollan, Michael |title=The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7475-6300-6 |title-link=The Botany of Desire |year=2003}}</ref>

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====鸟类和鸟类传粉的花朵====

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[[File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding.jpg|thumb|left|紫喉蜂鸟在从一朵花中摄食并授粉|链接=Special:FilePath/Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg]]

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[[Hummingbird|蜂鸟]]和喜鸟类（通过鸟类传粉）的花演化出了一种[[mutualism (biology)|互惠]]的关系；这些花的[[nectar|花蜜]]合于鸟类的饮食，它们的颜色亦合于鸟类的视觉，它们的形状则合于鸟的喙；这些花的开放时间还被发现与蜂鸟的繁殖季节相吻合；同与被昆虫传粉密切相关的植物相比，喜鸟类植物的花部特征差异很大；这些花也会较昆虫授粉的同类更华丽、复杂和艳丽；被普遍认为的是，植物首先与昆虫形成共同演化关系，喜鸟类植物在后期分化；从鸟类学到昆虫授粉，并没有多少科学依据支持此分歧中相反的例子；喜鸟类植物花器官表型的多样性和蜜蜂传粉物种花器官表型的相对一致性可以归因于传粉者偏好的转变方向。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Kathleen M.|last2=Reeves |first2=Patrick A. |last3=Olmstead |first3=Richard G. |last4=Schemske|first4=Douglas W. |s2cid=2991957|title=Rapid speciation and the evolution of hummingbird pollination in neotropical Costus subgenus Costus (Costaceae): evidence from nrDNA ITS and ETS sequences |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=2005 |volume=92 |issue=11|pages=1899–1910 |doi=10.3732/ajb.92.11.1899 |pmid=21646107|doi-access=free }}</ref>

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===无花果的生殖与无花果蜂===

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{{Main|Reproductive coevolution in Ficus}}''[[Ficus|榕]]''属植物由800种藤本植物、灌木和乔木构成，其中包括栽培的无花果、由它们可以保持雌花和花粉在其中的果实状萼的[[syconium|榕果]]所定义；每一种榕树都有自己的[[fig wasp|榕小蜂]]（在大多数情况下）为榕树授粉，由此一种贯穿于这个属中紧密的相互依赖关系已然形成并持续存在。<ref name="Suleman">{{cite journal |last1=Suleman |first1=Nazia |last2=Sait |first2=Steve |last3=Compton |first3=Stephen G. |title=Female figs as traps: Their impact on the dynamics of an experimental fig tree-pollinator-parasitoid community |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=62 |year=2015 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.actao.2014.11.001 |bibcode=2015AcO....62....1S|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/85568/7/Female%20plants%20as%20traps%20paper%20%283%29.pdf }}</ref>

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[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb~~|right~~|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg|''拟家蚁''和为其供给蛋白质的贝尔特体在牛角金合欢（''[[Vachellia cornigera]]''）上<ref name="Hölldobler-532" />]]

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[[File:Ant - Pseudomyrmex species, on Bull Thorn Acacia (Acacia cornigera) with Beltian bodies, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize - 8505045055.jpg|thumb|链接=Special:FilePath/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg|''拟家蚁''和为其供给蛋白质的贝尔特体在牛角金合欢（''[[Vachellia cornigera]]''）上<ref name="Hölldobler-532" />|替代=|212x212像素]]

=== 相思树蚁与牛角相思树 ===

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[[acacia ant|相思树蚁]]（''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea''）是一种能保护至少5种“金合欢树”（''[[Vachellia]]''）免受食用牛角相思树的昆虫和其他植物争夺阳光的专性植物蚂蚁，而这种树则为这种蚂蚁及其幼虫提供营养和庇护<ref name="Hölldobler-532">{{cite book |last1=Hölldobler |first1=Bert |last2=Wilson |first2=Edward O. |title=The ants |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-674-04075-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/532 532]–533}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=National Geographic|title=Acacia Ant Video|url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107085438/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/animals/bugs-animals/ants-and-termites/ant_acaciatree.html|archive-date=2007-11-07}}</ref>；这种互利共生并不是自然而然的：其他蚂蚁种类遵循不同的[[evolutionary strategy|进化策略]]，利用树木而不作回报；这些欺诈性的蚂蚁通过破坏树木的生殖器官对寄主施加重大伤害，不过它们对寄主健康的净影响并不一定是负面的，因此难以预测。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1006872107 |vauthors=Palmer TM, Doak DF, Stanton ML, Bronstein JL, Kiers ET, Young TP, Goheen JR, Pringle RM |year=2010 |title=Synergy of multiple partners, including freeloaders, increases host fitness in a multispecies mutualism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=40 |pages=17234–9 |pmid=20855614 |pmc=2951420 |bibcode=2010PNAS..10717234P|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Kinship and incompatibility between colonies of the acacia ant ''Pseudomyrex ferruginea'' |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |first=Alex |last=Mintzer |author2=Vinson, S.B. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=75–78 |doi=10.1007/bf00299432 |jstor=4599807 |year=1985|s2cid=9538185 }}</ref>

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==~~宿主和寄生虫~~==

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==宿主和寄生者==

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===~~寄生虫和有性生殖的宿主~~===

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===寄生者和有性生殖的宿主===

[[Host–parasite coevolution|宿主和寄生者的共同演化]]是[[host (biology)|宿主]]和[[parasite|寄生者]]的共同演化；<ref name="Woolhouse">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1202-569 |last1=Woolhouse |first1=M. E. J. |last2=Webster |first2=J. P. |last3=Domingo |first3=E. |last4=Charlesworth|first4=B. |last5=Levin |first5=B. R. |title=Biological and biomedical implications of the coevolution of pathogens and their hosts |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |date=December 2002 |pmid=12457190 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |url=http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/689/2/Charlesworth_Woolhouse.pdf|hdl=1842/689 |s2cid=33145462 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>许多病毒作为[[obligate parasite|专性寄生者]]的一个普遍特征是它们与各自宿主的共同演化；这两个物种之间的相关突变使它们进入了进化的军备竞赛；无论是哪种生物、宿主或寄生物，如果不能跟上其他生物的步伐，它们就会从它们的栖息地消失，而平均适合度较高的物种会幸存下来；这种竞争的假说被称为[[Red Queen hypothesis|红皇后假说]]；<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Valen, L. |date=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}} cited in: [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REDQUEEN.html The Red Queen Principle]</ref>红皇后假说预测有性生殖可以让寄主在寄生者之前保持领先，就像''[[Through the Looking-Glass|爱丽丝镜中奇遇]]''的[[Red Queen's race|红皇后比赛]]一样：“尽你所能跑而仍保留在同一个地方。”；<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Lewis |author-link=Lewis Carroll |orig-year=1871 |title=Through the Looking-glass: And what Alice Found There |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJJZAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Macmillan |date=1875 |page=42 |quote=it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place.}}</ref>宿主进行有性繁殖，产生一些对寄生物具有免疫力的后代，然后进化为应对措施。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep10004 |last=Rabajante |first=J. |display-authors=etal |title=Red Queen dynamics in multi-host and multi-parasite interaction system |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2015 |volume=5 |pages=10004 |pmid=25899168 |pmc=4405699|bibcode=2015NatSR...510004R}}</ref>

寄生者和宿主的关系可能导致了有性生殖的流行，而不是更有效率的无性生殖；看起来，当寄生者感染宿主时，有性生殖提供了一个更好的机会来发展抵抗性（通过下一代的变异），这种可导致适应性的有性生殖变异性在无性生殖中则看不到，这样就更容易会产生另一代易受同一寄生者的感染的机体；<ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual reproduction works thanks to ever-evolving host, parasite relationships |website=PhysOrg |url=https://phys.org/news/2011-07-sexual-reproduction-ever-evolving-host-parasite.html |date=7 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Morran, L.T. |author2=Schmidt, O.G. |author3=Gelarden, I.A. |author4=Parrish, R.C. II |author5= Lively, C.M. |title=Running with the Red Queen: Host-Parasite Coevolution Selects for Biparental Sex |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6039 |pages=216–8 |date=8 July 2011 |id=Science.1206360 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..216M |doi=10.1126/science.1206360 |pmid=21737739 |pmc=3402160}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Hogan, C. Michael |date=2010 |url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Virus |title=Virus |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Earth |editor=Cutler Cleveland |editor2=Sidney Draggan}}</ref>宿主和寄生者之间的共同演化可能相应导致了在普遍的群体中的许多遗传多样性，包括血浆多态性、蛋白多态性和组织相容性系统。<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Anderson, R. |author2=May, R. |date=October 1982 |title=Coevolution of hosts and parasites |journal=Parasitology |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=411–426 |doi=10.1017/S0031182000055360 |pmid=6755367}}</ref>

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===巢穴寄生===

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==捕食者和猎物==

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[[文件:Leopard kill - KNP - 001.jpg|链接=link=Special:FilePath/Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg|替代=|左|缩略图|211x211像素|捕食者和猎物：一只[[leopard|花豹]]在捕杀一只羚羊]]

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这同样适用于[[herbivore|草食动物]]、植食动物，以及它们吃的植物；1964年，[[Paul R. Ehrlich|保罗·R·欧里希]]和[[Peter H. Raven|彼得·R·瑞文]]提出了[[escape and radiate coevolution|逃逸和辐射的共同演化]]理论来描述植物和蝴蝶的进化多样性；<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref>在[[Rocky Mountains|落基山脉]]，[[red squirrel|红松鼠]]和[[crossbill|斑鸠]]（食种子的鸟）争夺[[lodgepole pine|海滩松]]的种子；松鼠通过啃咬松果鳞片来获取松子，而斑鸠则通过它们不寻常的交叉下颚来获取松子；在有松鼠的地方，海滩松的球果更重、种子更少、鳞片更薄，这使得松鼠更加难以获取种子；相反，如果有斑鸠而没有松鼠，球果的结构会较轻，但有较厚的鳞片，从而就导致交喙更难获取种子；海滩上的锥形细胞与这两种食草动物进行着一场进化中的军备竞赛，在接下来的两个段落中也是这样。<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref>

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[[文件:Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg|链接=link=Special:FilePath/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg|替代=|缩略图|170x170像素|[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php/%E6%80%A7%E5%86%B2%E7%AA%81 性冲突]已经在''[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php/Drosophila_melanogaster 黑腹果蝇]''（shown mating, male on right）的案例当中被研究]]

==竞争行为==

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无论是具有如[[sexual conflict|性冲突]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1785 |title=Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: An overview |year=2006 |last1=Parker |first1=G. A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=361 |issue=1466 |pages=235–59 |pmid=16612884 |pmc=1569603}}</ref>和[[sexual selection|性选择]]<ref name="UCL">{{cite web|title=Biol 2007 - Coevolution|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html|publisher=[[University College, London]]|access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref>等特征的[[intraspecific competition|种内竞争]]，还是具有如食肉动物之间的[[interspecific competition|种间竞争]]，都可能推动共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |s2cid=5576868 |title=Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past |journal=Oikos |date=October 1980 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.2307/3544421 |jstor=3544421}}</ref>

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无论是具有如[[sexual conflict|性冲突]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1785 |title=Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: An overview |year=2006 |last1=Parker |first1=G. A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=361 |issue=1466 |pages=235–59 |pmid=16612884 |pmc=1569603}}</ref>和[[sexual selection|性选择]]<ref name="UCL">{{cite web|title=Biol 2007 - Coevolution|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html|publisher=[[University College, London]]|access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref>等特征的[[intraspecific competition|种内竞争]]，还是具有如食肉动物之间的[[interspecific competition|种间竞争]]，都可能推动共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |s2cid=5576868 |title=Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past |journal=Oikos |date=October 1980 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.2307/3544421 |jstor=3544421}}</ref>[[性冲突]]已经在''[[Drosophila melanogaster|黑腹果蝇]]''（shown mating, male on right）的案例当中被研究

== 多物种 ==

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[[~~File~~:Amegilla cingulata on long tube of Acanthus ilicifolius flower.jpg|~~thumb~~|~~upright~~|长舌蜜蜂和长筒花朵成对或成组（集团）的“广泛”共同演化。<ref name=Juenger/>~~|链接=Special:FilePath/Amegilla_cingulata_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg~~]]

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[[文件:Amegilla cingulata on long tube of Acanthus ilicifolius flower.jpg|链接=link=Special:FilePath/Amegilla_cingulata_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg|替代=|缩略图|189x189像素|长舌蜜蜂和长筒花朵成对或成组（集团）的“广泛”共同演化。<ref name=Juenger/>]]

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到目前为止，所列出的共同演化类型均是被描述为两两而作用的（也称为特定的共同演化）——其中一个物种的特征直接响应第二个物种特征而演化；反之亦然。然而现实当中所遇到的共同演化并非总是如此。另一种演化模式出现在相互演化之处，然而是在一组物种而不是两个物种之间；这被称作为泛协同性（集团性）的或散漫的共同演化。例如，几种[[flowering plant|被子植物]]例如在长管的末端提供[[nectar|花蜜]]的特征可以与一种或几种传粉昆虫例如长喙的特征共同演化；更一般地说，被子植物是由来自不同科的昆虫授粉的，包括[[bee|蜜蜂]]、[[fly|苍蝇]]和[[beetle|甲虫]]，所有这些昆虫形成了一个广泛的[[pollinator|授粉者]]的[[guild (ecology)|协同系统]]，它们对花朵产生的花蜜或花粉作出反应。<ref name="Juenger">Juenger, Thomas, and [[Joy Bergelson]]. "Pairwise versus diffuse natural selection and the multiple herbivores of scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata." Evolution (1998): 1583–1592.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Gullan, P. J. |author2=Cranston, P. S. |date=2010 |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |url=https://archive.org/details/insectsoutlineen00pjgu |url-access=limited |publisher=Wiley |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-118-84615-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/insectsoutlineen00pjgu/page/n315 291]–293}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rader |first1=Romina |last2=Bartomeus |first2=Ignasi |display-authors=etal |title=Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination |journal=PNAS |date=2016 |volume=113 |issue=1 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517092112 |pmid=26621730 |pmc=4711867 |pages=146–151 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113..146R|doi-access=free }}</ref>

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