更改

Lamarck's theory of evolution, Darwinian evolution, and Waddington's genetic assimilation. All the theories offer explanations of how organisms respond to a changed environment with adaptive inherited change.]]

Lamarck's theory of evolution, Darwinian evolution, and Waddington's genetic assimilation. All the theories offer explanations of how organisms respond to a changed environment with adaptive inherited change.]]

拉马克的进化论、达尔文进化论和华丁顿的基因同化论。[参考译文]所有的理论都解释了有机体是如何通过适应性遗传变化来应对环境变化的

拉马克的进化论、达尔文进化论和华丁顿的遗传同化论。[参考译文]所有的理论都解释了有机体是如何通过适应性遗传变化来应对环境变化的

In [[evolutionary biology]], the '''Baldwin effect''' describes the effect of learned behavior on evolution. In brief, [[James Mark Baldwin]] and others suggested during the [[eclipse of Darwinism]] in the late 19th century that an organism's ''ability to learn'' new behaviors (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through [[natural selection]]. Though this process appears similar to [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian evolution]], Lamarck proposed that living things ''inherited'' their parents' acquired characteristics. The Baldwin effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]].

In [[evolutionary biology]], the '''Baldwin effect''' describes the effect of learned behavior on evolution. In brief, [[James Mark Baldwin]] and others suggested during the [[eclipse of Darwinism]] in the late 19th century that an organism's ''ability to learn'' new behaviors (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through [[natural selection]]. Though this process appears similar to [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian evolution]], Lamarck proposed that living things ''inherited'' their parents' acquired characteristics. The Baldwin effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]].

In evolutionary biology, the Baldwin effect describes the effect of learned behavior on evolution. In brief, James Mark Baldwin and others suggested during the eclipse of Darwinism in the late 19th century that an organism's ability to learn new behaviors (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through natural selection. Though this process appears similar to Lamarckian evolution, Lamarck proposed that living things inherited their parents' acquired characteristics. The Baldwin effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the modern synthesis.

In evolutionary biology, the Baldwin effect describes the effect of learned behavior on evolution. In brief, James Mark Baldwin and others suggested during the eclipse of Darwinism in the late 19th century that an organism's ability to learn new behaviors (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through natural selection. Though this process appears similar to Lamarckian evolution, Lamarck proposed that living things inherited their parents' acquired characteristics. The Baldwin effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the modern synthesis.

=="A New Factor in Evolution"==

=="A New Factor in Evolution" “进化的新因素”==

The effect, then unnamed, was put forward in 1896 in a paper "A New Factor in Evolution" by [[United States|American]] [[psychology|psychologist]] [[James Mark Baldwin]]. The paper proposed a mechanism for specific selection for general learning ability. As [[Robert J. Richards|Robert Richards]] explains:<ref name=Richards1987>{{cite book | author=Richards, Robert J. | year=1987 | title=Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior| publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago | isbn=978-0-226-71199-7 | page=399| author-link=Robert J. Richards }}</ref>

The effect, then unnamed, was put forward in 1896 in a paper "A New Factor in Evolution" by [[United States|American]] [[psychology|psychologist]] [[James Mark Baldwin]]. The paper proposed a mechanism for specific selection for general learning ability. As [[Robert J. Richards|Robert Richards]] explains:<ref name=Richards1987>{{cite book | author=Richards, Robert J. | year=1987 | title=Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior| publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago | isbn=978-0-226-71199-7 | page=399| author-link=Robert J. Richards }}</ref>

The effect, then unnamed, was put forward in 1896 in a paper "A New Factor in Evolution" by American psychologist James Mark Baldwin. The paper proposed a mechanism for specific selection for general learning ability. As Robert Richards explains:

The effect, then unnamed, was put forward in 1896 in a paper "A New Factor in Evolution" by American psychologist James Mark Baldwin. The paper proposed a mechanism for specific selection for general learning ability. As Robert Richards explains:

1896年，美国心理学家詹姆斯·马克·鲍德温在一篇名为《进化的新因素》的论文中提出了这一效应。本文提出了一种针对一般学习能力的具体选择机制。正如罗伯特 · 理查兹解释的那样:

1896年，美国心理学家詹姆斯·马克·鲍德温在一篇名为《进化的新因素》的论文中提出了这一效应（1987年又发表了第二篇论文）。该文提出了一种针对一般学习能力的具体选择机制。正如'''罗伯特·理查兹 Robert Richards'''解释的那样:

If animals entered a new environment—or their old environment rapidly changed—those

If animals entered a new environment—or their old environment rapidly changed—those

 

that could flexibly respond by learning new behaviors or by ontogenetically adapting would

that could flexibly respond by learning new behaviors or by ontogenetically adapting would

that could flexibly respond by learning new behaviors or by ontogenetically adapting would

that could flexibly respond by learning new behaviors or by ontogenetically adapting would

 

be naturally preserved. This saved remnant would, over several generations, have the

be naturally preserved. This saved remnant would, over several generations, have the

be naturally preserved. This saved remnant would, over several generations, have the

be naturally preserved. This saved remnant would, over several generations, have the

 

opportunity to exhibit spontaneously congenital variations similar to their acquired traits and

opportunity to exhibit spontaneously congenital variations similar to their acquired traits and

opportunity to exhibit spontaneously congenital variations similar to their acquired traits and

opportunity to exhibit spontaneously congenital variations similar to their acquired traits and

 

have these variations naturally selected. It would look as though the acquired traits had sunk

have these variations naturally selected. It would look as though the acquired traits had sunk

have these variations naturally selected. It would look as though the acquired traits had sunk

have these variations naturally selected. It would look as though the acquired traits had sunk

 

into the hereditary substance in a Lamarckian fashion, but the process would really be [[Neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinian]].

into the hereditary substance in a Lamarckian fashion, but the process would really be [[Neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinian]].

into the hereditary substance in a Lamarckian fashion, but the process would really be neo-Darwinian.

into the hereditary substance in a Lamarckian fashion, but the process would really be neo-Darwinian.

</blockquote>

</blockquote>

Selected offspring would tend to have an increased capacity for learning new skills rather than being confined to genetically coded, relatively fixed abilities. In effect, it places emphasis on the fact that the sustained behavior of a species or group can shape the evolution of that species. The "Baldwin effect" is better understood in evolutionary developmental biology literature as a scenario in which a character or trait change occurring in an organism as a result of its interaction with its environment becomes gradually assimilated into its developmental genetic or epigenetic repertoire (Simpson, 1953; Newman, 2002). In the words of Daniel Dennett,

Selected offspring would tend to have an increased capacity for learning new skills rather than being confined to genetically coded, relatively fixed abilities. In effect, it places emphasis on the fact that the sustained behavior of a species or group can shape the evolution of that species. The "Baldwin effect" is better understood in evolutionary developmental biology literature as a scenario in which a character or trait change occurring in an organism as a result of its interaction with its environment becomes gradually assimilated into its developmental genetic or epigenetic repertoire (Simpson, 1953; Newman, 2002). In the words of Daniel Dennett,

被选中的后代往往具有更强的学习新技能的能力，而不是局限于基因编码，相对固定的能力。实际上，它强调了一个事实，即一个物种或群体的持续行为可以塑造该物种的进化。在演化发育生物学文学中，“ Baldwin 效应”被更好地理解为一个场景，在这个场景中，一个有机体由于与其环境的相互作用而发生的性格或特征变化逐渐被同化到其发育的遗传或表观遗传剧目中(Simpson，1953; Newman，2002)。用丹尼尔 · 丹尼特的话来说,

被选择留存的后代往往具有更强的学习新技能的能力，而不仅局限于基因编码的相对固定的能力。实际上，它强调以下事实：一个物种或群体的持续行为可以影响其进化。在'''演化发育生物学 Evolutionary developmental biology'''的文献中，“鲍德温效应”得到了更好的理解——生物体由于与其环境的相互作用而发生的的特征或性状变化逐渐被同化到其发育遗传或表观遗传库中。用'''丹尼尔·丹尼特 Daniel Dennett'''的话来说,

Thanks to the Baldwin effect, species can be said to pretest the efficacy of particular different designs by phenotypic (individual) exploration of the space of nearby possibilities. If a particularly winning setting is thereby discovered, this discovery will create a new selection pressure: organisms that are closer in the adaptive landscape to that discovery will have a clear advantage over those more distant.

Thanks to the Baldwin effect, species can be said to pretest the efficacy of particular different designs by phenotypic (individual) exploration of the space of nearby possibilities. If a particularly winning setting is thereby discovered, this discovery will create a new selection pressure: organisms that are closer in the adaptive landscape to that discovery will have a clear advantage over those more distant.

由于鲍德温效应，可以说物种通过表型(个体)探索附近空间的可能性，预先测试了特定不同设计的功效。如果一个特别成功的环境被发现，这个发现将创造一个新的选择压力: 在适应环境中更接近这个发现的有机体将比那些更遥远的有机体有明显的优势。

由于鲍德温效应，可以说物种通过表型（个体）探索附近可能性的空间，预先测试了特定不同设计的功效。若由此发现一个特别适宜的环境，该发现将导致新的选择压力: 在适应环境中，更接近此发现的生物体将较其他生物体有明显的优势。

</blockquote>

</blockquote>

An update to the Baldwin effect was developed by Jean Piaget, Paul Weiss, and Conrad Waddington in the 1960s–1970s. This new version included an explicit role for the social in shaping subsequent natural change in humans (both evolutionary and developmental), with reference to alterations of selection pressures.

An update to the Baldwin effect was developed by Jean Piaget, Paul Weiss, and Conrad Waddington in the 1960s–1970s. This new version included an explicit role for the social in shaping subsequent natural change in humans (both evolutionary and developmental), with reference to alterations of selection pressures.

1960-1970年代，让 · 皮亚杰、保罗 · 维斯和康拉德 · 华丁顿对鲍德温效应进行了更新。这个新的版本包括了社会在塑造人类随后的自然变化(包括进化和发展)中的明确作用，并提到了选择压力的改变。

1960-1970年代，'''让·皮亚杰 Jean Piaget'''、'''保罗·维斯 Paul Weiss'''和'''康拉德·华丁顿 Conrad Waddington'''修正了鲍德温效应。该新版本明确了社会在塑造人类随后的自然变化（包括进化和发展）中的作用，并提到了选择压力的改变。

As is to be expected from Stigler's law, subsequent research shows that Baldwin was not the first to identify the process; Douglas Spalding mentioned it in 1873.

As is to be expected from Stigler's law, subsequent research shows that Baldwin was not the first to identify the process; Douglas Spalding mentioned it in 1873.

正如斯蒂格勒定律所预期的那样，随后的研究表明，Baldwin 并不是第一个发现这个过程的人; 道格拉斯·斯普拉丁在1873年提到过这个过程。

正如'''斯蒂格勒定律 Stigler's Law'''所指，随后的研究表明，鲍德温并不是第一个发现这个过程的人; '''道格拉斯·斯波尔丁 Douglas Spalding'''在1873年提到过这个过程。

==Examples==

==Examples 举例==

Suppose a species is threatened by a new [[predator]] and there is a behavior that makes it more difficult for the predator to kill individuals of the species. Individuals who learn the behavior more quickly will obviously be at an advantage. As time goes on, the ability to learn the behavior will improve (by genetic selection), and at some point it will seem to be an [[instinct]]. Baldwin gives the following case involving cooperation: "Animals may be kept alive let us say in a given environment by social cooperation only; these transmit this social type of variation to posterity; thus social adaptation sets the direction of physical phylogeny and physical heredity is determined in part by this factor" (Baldwin, 1896, p.&nbsp;553).

Suppose a species is threatened by a new [[predator]] and there is a behavior that makes it more difficult for the predator to kill individuals of the species. Individuals who learn the behavior more quickly will obviously be at an advantage. As time goes on, the ability to learn the behavior will improve (by genetic selection), and at some point it will seem to be an [[instinct]]. Baldwin gives the following case involving cooperation: "Animals may be kept alive let us say in a given environment by social cooperation only; these transmit this social type of variation to posterity; thus social adaptation sets the direction of physical phylogeny and physical heredity is determined in part by this factor" (Baldwin, 1896, p.&nbsp;553).

==Controversy and acceptance==

==Controversy and acceptance 争议和接受==

Initially Baldwin's ideas were not incompatible with the prevailing, but uncertain, ideas about the mechanism of transmission of hereditary information and at least two other biologists put forward very similar ideas in 1896. In 1901, Maurice Maeterlinck referred to behavioural adaptations to prevailing climates in different species of bees as ‘what had merely been an idea, therefore, and opposed to instinct, has thus by slow degrees become an instinctive habit’. The Baldwin effect theory subsequently became more controversial, with scholars being split between "Baldwin boosters" and "Baldwin skeptics". The theory was first called the "Baldwin effect" by George Gaylord Simpson in 1953. In 1942, the evolutionary biologist Julian Huxley promoted the Baldwin effect as part of the modern synthesis, saying the concept had been unduly neglected by evolutionists.

Initially Baldwin's ideas were not incompatible with the prevailing, but uncertain, ideas about the mechanism of transmission of hereditary information and at least two other biologists put forward very similar ideas in 1896. In 1901, Maurice Maeterlinck referred to behavioural adaptations to prevailing climates in different species of bees as ‘what had merely been an idea, therefore, and opposed to instinct, has thus by slow degrees become an instinctive habit’. The Baldwin effect theory subsequently became more controversial, with scholars being split between "Baldwin boosters" and "Baldwin skeptics". The theory was first called the "Baldwin effect" by George Gaylord Simpson in 1953. In 1942, the evolutionary biologist Julian Huxley promoted the Baldwin effect as part of the modern synthesis, saying the concept had been unduly neglected by evolutionists.

In the 1960s, the evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr contended that the Baldwin effect theory was untenable because

In the 1960s, the evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr contended that the Baldwin effect theory was untenable because

# the argument is stated in terms of the individual genotype, whereas what is really exposed to the selection pressure is a phenotypically and genetically variable population;

# the argument is stated in terms of the individual genotype, whereas what is really exposed to the selection pressure is a phenotypically and genetically variable population;

  it is assumed that phenotypic rigidity is selectively superior to phenotypic flexibility.

  it is assumed that phenotypic rigidity is selectively superior to phenotypic flexibility.

In 1987 Geoffrey Hinton and Steven Nowlan demonstrated by computer simulation that learning can accelerate evolution, and they associated this with the Baldwin effect.

In 1987 Geoffrey Hinton and Steven Nowlan demonstrated by computer simulation that learning can accelerate evolution, and they associated this with the Baldwin effect.

1987年，Geoffrey Hinton 和 Steven Nowlan 通过计算机模拟证明了学习可以加速进化，他们将其与 Baldwin 效应联系起来。

1987年，'''杰弗里·辛顿 Geoffrey Hinton''' 和 '''史蒂芬·诺兰 Steven Nowlan''' 通过计算机模拟证明了学习可以加速进化，他们将此与鲍德温效应联系起来。

Paul Griffiths suggests two reasons for the continuing interest in the Baldwin effect. The first is the role mind is understood to play in the effect. The second is the connection between development and evolution in the effect. Baldwin’s account of how neurophysiological and conscious mental factors may contribute to the effect brings into focus the question of the possible survival value of consciousness.

Paul Griffiths suggests two reasons for the continuing interest in the Baldwin effect. The first is the role mind is understood to play in the effect. The second is the connection between development and evolution in the effect. Baldwin’s account of how neurophysiological and conscious mental factors may contribute to the effect brings into focus the question of the possible survival value of consciousness.

The [[house finch's colonisation of North America has provided empirical evidence of the Baldwin effect.]]

The [[house finch's colonisation of North America has provided empirical evidence of the Baldwin effect.]]

[雀鸟在北美的殖民活动提供了鲍德温效应的经验证明。]

[图一：家朱雀在北美的定殖提供了鲍德温效应的经验证明。]

Still, observes David Depew, "it is striking that a rather diverse lot of contemporary evolutionary theorists, most of whom regard themselves as supporters of the Modern Synthesis, have of late become 'Baldwin boosters These Baldwin boosters

Still, observes David Depew, "it is striking that a rather diverse lot of contemporary evolutionary theorists, most of whom regard themselves as supporters of the Modern Synthesis, have of late become 'Baldwin boosters These Baldwin boosters

 

are typically evolutionary psychologists who are searching for scenarios in which a population can get itself by behavioral trial and error onto a "hard to find" part of the fitness landscape in which human brain, language, and mind can rapidly coevolve. They are searching for what Daniel Dennett, himself a Baldwin booster, calls an "evolutionary crane," an instrument to do some heavy lifting fast.

are typically evolutionary psychologists who are searching for scenarios in which a population can get itself by behavioral trial and error onto a "hard to find" part of the fitness landscape in which human brain, language, and mind can rapidly coevolve. They are searching for what Daniel Dennett, himself a Baldwin booster, calls an "evolutionary crane," an instrument to do some heavy lifting fast.

</blockquote>

</blockquote>

According to Daniel Dennett, recent work has rendered the Baldwin effect "no longer a controversial wrinkle in orthodox Darwinism". Potential genetic mechanisms underlying the Baldwin effect have been proposed for the evolution of natural (genetically-determinant) antibodies. In 2009, empirical evidence for the Baldwin effect was provided from the colonisation of North America by the house finch.

According to Daniel Dennett, recent work has rendered the Baldwin effect "no longer a controversial wrinkle in orthodox Darwinism". Potential genetic mechanisms underlying the Baldwin effect have been proposed for the evolution of natural (genetically-determinant) antibodies. In 2009, empirical evidence for the Baldwin effect was provided from the colonisation of North America by the house finch.

==Comparison with genetic assimilation==

==Comparison with genetic assimilation 与遗传同化的区别==

{{further|Genetic assimilation}}

{{further|Genetic assimilation}}

The Baldwin effect has been confused with, and sometimes conflated with, a different evolutionary theory also based on phenotypic plasticity, C. H. Waddington's genetic assimilation. The Baldwin effect includes genetic accommodation, of which one type is genetic assimilation.<!--more needed-->

The Baldwin effect has been confused with, and sometimes conflated with, a different evolutionary theory also based on phenotypic plasticity, C. H. Waddington's genetic assimilation. The Baldwin effect includes genetic accommodation, of which one type is genetic assimilation.<!--more needed-->

==See also==

==See also 参见==

* {{annotated link|Evolvability}}

* {{annotated link|Evolvability}}

==Notes==

==Notes 注释==

{{reflist|30em}}

{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==

== References 参考资料==

* {{cite journal | last = Bateson |first=Patrick | year = 2004 | title = The Active Role of Behaviour in Evolution | url = | journal =  Biology and Philosophy | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 283–298 | doi=10.1023/b:biph.0000024468.12161.83}}

* {{cite journal | last = Bateson |first=Patrick | year = 2004 | title = The Active Role of Behaviour in Evolution | url = | journal =  Biology and Philosophy | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 283–298 | doi=10.1023/b:biph.0000024468.12161.83}}

==External links==

==External links 外部链接==

* [http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Hypermail/Cognition.Sociobiology.98/0101.html Baldwinian evolution]

* [http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Hypermail/Cognition.Sociobiology.98/0101.html Baldwinian evolution]