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第6行： − + + − Simon attended [[Milwaukee Public Schools]], where he developed an interest in science and established himself as an atheist. While attending middle school, Simon wrote a letter to "the editor of the ''[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel|Milwaukee Journal]]'' defending the civil liberties of atheists".<ref>{{cite book|title=Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America|author=Hunter Crowther-Heyck|publisher=JHU Press|year=2005|isbn=9780801880254|page=22|quote=His secular, scientific values came well before he was old enough to make such calculating career decisions. For example, while still in middle school, Simon wrote a letter to the editor of the ''Milwaukee Journal'' defending the civil liberties of atheists, and by high school, he was "certain" that he was "religiously an atheist", a conviction that never wavered.}}</ref> Unlike most children, Simon's family introduced him to the idea that human behavior could be studied scientifically; his mother's younger brother, Harold Merkel (1892-1922), who studied economics at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] under [[John R. Commons]], became one of his earliest influences. Through Harold's books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered social science. Among his earliest influences, Simon cited [[Norman Angell]] for his book ''[[The Great Illusion]]'' and [[Henry George]] for his book ''[[Progress and Poverty]]''. While attending high school, Simon joined the debate team, where he argued "from conviction, rather than cussedness" in favor of George's [[Georgism|single tax]].<ref name="Velupillai, Kumaraswamy 2000">Velupillai, Kumaraswamy. ''Computable Economics: The Arne Ryde Memorial Lectures''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref>+ − − 1933年，西蒙进入芝加哥大学学习，在他早期所受到的影响下，他决定学习社会科学和数学。西蒙对生物学很感兴趣，但由于“色盲和实验室里的笨拙” ，他选择了不从事这一领域的研究。西蒙很小的时候就知道自己是色盲，并且发现外部世界和感知的世界是不一样的。在大学期间，西蒙专注于政治科学和经济学。西蒙最重要的导师是亨利 · 舒尔茨，一位计量经济学家和数学经济学家。在报名参加了“测量市政府”的课程后，西蒙成为了克拉伦斯 · 里德利的研究助理，两人合著了《测量市政活动: 1938年评估行政管理建议标准调查》。的研究引导他进入组织决策领域，这也成为了他博士论文的主题。 − + − 第28行：
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第257行： − − − − − − ===Pedagogy=== − − Simon's work has strongly influenced [[John Mighton]], developer of a program that has achieved significant success in improving mathematics performance among elementary and high school students.<ref name="tvo">"John Mighton: The Ubiquitous Bell Curve", in ''[[Big Ideas (TV series)|Big Ideas]]'' on [[TVOntario]], broadcast 1:30 a.m., 6 November 2010.</ref> Mighton cites a 2000 paper by Simon and two coauthors that counters arguments by French mathematics educator, [[Guy Brousseau]], and others suggesting that excessive practice hampers children's understanding:<ref name="tvo" /> − − − − {{Quotation|[The] criticism of practice (called "drill and kill," as if this phrase constituted empirical evaluation) is prominent in constructivist writings. Nothing flies more in the face of the last 20 years of research than the assertion that practice is bad. All evidence, from the laboratory and from extensive case studies of professionals, indicates that real competence only comes with extensive practice... In denying the critical role of practice one is denying children the very thing they need to achieve real competence. The instructional task is not to "kill" motivation by demanding drill, but to find tasks that provide practice while at the same time sustaining interest.|[[John Robert Anderson (psychologist)|John R. Anderson]], Lynne M. Reder, and Herbert A. Simon||"[http://memory.psy.cmu.edu/publications/Applic.MisApp.pdf Applications and misapplications<br>of cognitive psychology to mathematics education]", ''Texas Educational Review'' 6 (2000)}} − −
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值得注意的是，西蒙是几个现代科学领域的先驱之一，如人工智能、信息处理、决策、问题解决、组织理论和复杂系统。他也是最早分析复杂性结构，并提出'''优先连接（Preferential Attachment）'''机制来解释幂律分布的人之一。<ref name=simon>Simon, H. A., 1955, ''Biometrika'' 42, 425.</ref><ref>B. Mandelbrot, "A Note on a Class of Skew Distribution Functions, Analysis and Critique of a Paper by H. Simon", ''Information and Control'', 2 (1959), p. 90</ref>
值得注意的是，西蒙是几个现代科学领域的先驱之一，如人工智能、信息处理、决策、问题解决、组织理论和复杂系统。他也是最早分析复杂性结构，并提出'''优先连接（Preferential Attachment）'''机制来解释幂律分布的人之一。<ref name=simon>Simon, H. A., 1955, ''Biometrika'' 42, 425.</ref><ref>B. Mandelbrot, "A Note on a Class of Skew Distribution Functions, Analysis and Critique of a Paper by H. Simon", ''Information and Control'', 2 (1959), p. 90</ref>
==Early life and education==
==早期生活==
赫伯特·亚历山大·西蒙（Herbert Alexander Simon）于1916年6月15日出生于威斯康星州的密尔沃基。西蒙的父亲，亚瑟·西蒙 (1881-1948) ，是一位犹太电气工程师，在慕尼黑工业大学获得工程学位，1903年从德国来到美国<ref>''Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America'' by Hunter Crowther-Heyck, (JHU 2005), page 25.</ref>。作为一名发明家，亚瑟也是一名独立的专利律师。西蒙的母亲埃德娜 · 玛格丽特 · 默克尔(Edna Marguerite Merkel，1888-1969)是一位杰出的钢琴家，她的祖先来自布拉格和科隆。西蒙的欧洲祖先是钢琴制造商、金匠和酒商。和他的父亲一样，西蒙的母亲也来自一个有着犹太、路德教和天主教背景的家庭。与大多数孩子不同，赫伯特·西蒙的家人向他介绍了人类行为可以被科学研究的观点。通过哈罗德关于经济学和心理学的书，西蒙了解到了社会科学。在他最早的影响中，西蒙引用了诺曼 · 安吉尔的《大幻觉》和亨利 · 乔治的《进步与贫穷》<ref name="Simon 1991 p.3"/> 。
赫伯特·亚历山大·西蒙（Herbert Alexander Simon）于1916年6月15日出生于威斯康星州的密尔沃基。西蒙的父亲，亚瑟·西蒙 (1881-1948) ，是一位犹太电气工程师，在慕尼黑工业大学获得工程学位，1903年从德国来到美国<ref>''Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America'' by Hunter Crowther-Heyck, (JHU 2005), page 25.</ref>。作为一名发明家，亚瑟也是一名独立的专利律师。西蒙的母亲埃德娜 · 玛格丽特 · 默克尔(Edna Marguerite Merkel，1888-1969)是一位杰出的钢琴家，她的祖先来自布拉格和科隆。西蒙的欧洲祖先是钢琴制造商、金匠和酒商。和他的父亲一样，西蒙的母亲也来自一个有着犹太、路德教和天主教背景的家庭。与大多数孩子不同，赫伯特·西蒙的家人向他介绍了人类行为可以被科学研究的观点。通过哈罗德关于经济学和心理学的书，西蒙了解到了社会科学。在他最早的影响中，西蒙引用了诺曼 · 安吉尔的《大幻觉》和亨利 · 乔治的《进步与贫穷》<ref name="Simon 1991 p.3"/> 。
==教育经历==
1933年，西蒙进入芝加哥大学学习。在他早期所受到的影响下，他决定学习社会科学和数学。西蒙对生物学很感兴趣，但由于“色盲和实验室里的笨拙” ，他选择了不从事这一领域的研究。西蒙很小的时候就知道自己是色盲，并且发现外部世界和感知的世界是不一样的。在大学期间，西蒙专注于政治科学和经济学。西蒙最重要的导师是亨利 · 舒尔茨，一位计量经济学家和数学经济学家。在报名参加了“测量市政府”的课程后，西蒙成为了克拉伦斯·里德利的研究助理，两人合著了《测量市政活动: 1938年评估行政管理建议标准调查》。这项研究引导他进入组织决策领域，也成为了他博士论文的主题。
本科毕业后，西蒙获得了市政管理研究助理职位，随后在加州大学伯克利分校担任管理者。
本科毕业后，西蒙获得了市政管理研究助理职位，随后在加州大学伯克利分校担任管理者。
==Career and research==
==任职经历==
从1942年到1949年，西蒙是一名政治学教授，同时也是芝加哥伊利诺理工学院的系主任。在那里，他开始参加考尔斯委员会工作人员举办的研讨会，这些工作人员当时包括雅各布·马沙克，和特亚林·科普曼斯。于是，他开始了在制度主义（Institutionalism）经济学的深入研究。马沙克请西蒙来协助他当时正在与山姆 · 舒尔进行的“原子能的未来经济效应”研究<ref name="nobel autobio">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1978/simon-bio.html|title=Herbert A. Simon – Biographical|website=nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-12-01}}</ref>。
从1942年到1949年，西蒙是一名政治学教授，同时也是芝加哥伊利诺理工学院的系主任。在那里，他开始参加考尔斯委员会工作人员举办的研讨会，这些工作人员当时包括雅各布·马沙克，和特亚林·科普曼斯。于是，他开始了在制度主义（Institutionalism）经济学的深入研究。马沙克请西蒙来协助他当时正在与山姆 · 舒尔进行的“原子能的未来经济效应”研究<ref name="nobel autobio">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1978/simon-bio.html|title=Herbert A. Simon – Biographical|website=nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-12-01}}</ref>。
为了取代高度简化的经典经济模型方法，西蒙在他的著作《管理行为（Administrative Behavior）》中以提出了他著名的'''公司决策理论（Theory of Corporate Decision）'''。在这本书中，他提炼出了一系列概念，以及一套可以识别出多种影响决策制定因素的方法。他在组织和行政方面的兴趣使他不仅三次担任大学系主任，而且在1948年经济合作署的成立中发挥了重要作用，也参与了马歇尔计划中管理援助的行政团队，还在林登·约翰逊总统的科学咨询委员会和国家科学院任职<ref name="nobel autobio"/>。
为了取代高度简化的经典经济模型方法，西蒙在他的著作《管理行为（Administrative Behavior）》中以提出了他著名的'''公司决策理论（Theory of Corporate Decision）'''。在这本书中，他提炼出了一系列概念，以及一套可以识别出多种影响决策制定因素的方法。他在组织和行政方面的兴趣使他不仅三次担任大学系主任，而且在1948年经济合作署的成立中发挥了重要作用，也参与了马歇尔计划中管理援助的行政团队，还在林登·约翰逊总统的科学咨询委员会和国家科学院任职<ref name="nobel autobio"/>。
===Decision-making===
==学术贡献==
===决策===
Simon's three stages in Rational Decision Making: Intelligence, Design, Choice (IDC)
Simon's three stages in Rational Decision Making: Intelligence, Design, Choice (IDC)
===Artificial intelligence===
===人工智能===
Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.
Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.
===Psychology===
===心理学===
Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with [[Edward Feigenbaum]], he developed the [[EPAM]] (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, one of the first theories of [[learning]] to be implemented as a computer program. EPAM was able to explain a large number of phenomena in the field of verbal learning.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Feigenbaum | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Simon | first2 = H. A. | year = 1984 | title = EPAM-like models of recognition and learning | url = | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 305–336 | doi=10.1016/s0364-0213(84)80005-1}}</ref> Later versions of the model were applied to [[concept formation]] and the acquisition of [[expertise]]. With [[Fernand Gobet]], he has expanded the EPAM theory into the [[CHREST]] computational model.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gobet | first1 = F. | last2 = Simon | first2 = H. A. | year = 2000 | title = Five seconds or sixty? Presentation time in expert memory | url = http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/811| journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 651–682 | doi=10.1016/s0364-0213(00)00031-8}}</ref> The theory explains how simple [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] of information form the building blocks of schemata, which are more complex structures. CHREST has been used predominantly, to simulate aspects of chess expertise.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with [[Edward Feigenbaum]], he developed the [[EPAM]] (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, one of the first theories of [[learning]] to be implemented as a computer program. EPAM was able to explain a large number of phenomena in the field of verbal learning.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Feigenbaum | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Simon | first2 = H. A. | year = 1984 | title = EPAM-like models of recognition and learning | url = | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 305–336 | doi=10.1016/s0364-0213(84)80005-1}}</ref> Later versions of the model were applied to [[concept formation]] and the acquisition of [[expertise]]. With [[Fernand Gobet]], he has expanded the EPAM theory into the [[CHREST]] computational model.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gobet | first1 = F. | last2 = Simon | first2 = H. A. | year = 2000 | title = Five seconds or sixty? Presentation time in expert memory | url = http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/811| journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 651–682 | doi=10.1016/s0364-0213(00)00031-8}}</ref> The theory explains how simple [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] of information form the building blocks of schemata, which are more complex structures. CHREST has been used predominantly, to simulate aspects of chess expertise.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
===Sociology and economics===
===社会学与经济学===
Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in [[microeconomics]]. He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today. He also was the first to discuss this concept in terms of [[Knightian uncertainty|uncertainty]]; i.e., it is impossible to have [[Perfect information|perfect and complete information]] at any given time to make a decision. While this notion was not entirely new, Simon is best known for its origination. It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: Studies of Decision-Making Lead to Prize in Economics |url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1978/press.html|publisher=Nobelprize.org|accessdate=11 May 2014|date=16 October 1978}}</ref>
Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in [[microeconomics]]. He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today. He also was the first to discuss this concept in terms of [[Knightian uncertainty|uncertainty]]; i.e., it is impossible to have [[Perfect information|perfect and complete information]] at any given time to make a decision. While this notion was not entirely new, Simon is best known for its origination. It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: Studies of Decision-Making Lead to Prize in Economics |url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1978/press.html|publisher=Nobelprize.org|accessdate=11 May 2014|date=16 October 1978}}</ref>
At the [[Cowles Commission]], Simon's main goal was to link economic theory to mathematics and statistics. His main contributions were to the fields of [[general equilibrium]] and [[econometrics]]. He was greatly influenced by the marginalist debate that began in the 1930s. The popular work of the time argued that it was not apparent empirically that entrepreneurs needed to follow the marginalist principles of profit-maximization/cost-minimization in running organizations. The argument went on to note that profit maximization was not accomplished, in part, because of the lack of complete information. In decision-making, Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present. These factors limit the extent to which agents may make a fully rational decision, thus they possess only "[[bounded rationality]]" and must make decisions by "[[satisficing]]", or choosing that which might not be optimal, but which will make them happy enough. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision making process influences decision. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard [[Expected utility hypothesis|expected utility theory]].
At the [[Cowles Commission]], Simon's main goal was to link economic theory to mathematics and statistics. His main contributions were to the fields of [[general equilibrium]] and [[econometrics]]. He was greatly influenced by the marginalist debate that began in the 1930s. The popular work of the time argued that it was not apparent empirically that entrepreneurs needed to follow the marginalist principles of profit-maximization/cost-minimization in running organizations. The argument went on to note that profit maximization was not accomplished, in part, because of the lack of complete information. In decision-making, Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present. These factors limit the extent to which agents may make a fully rational decision, thus they possess only "[[bounded rationality]]" and must make decisions by "[[satisficing]]", or choosing that which might not be optimal, but which will make them happy enough. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision making process influences decision. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard [[Expected utility hypothesis|expected utility theory]].
Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through [[computer simulation]]s. As such, he developed an interest in [[computer science]]. Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, [[human–computer interaction]], principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of [[epistemology]], and the social implications of computer technology.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through [[computer simulation]]s. As such, he developed an interest in [[computer science]]. Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, [[human–computer interaction]], principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of [[epistemology]], and the social implications of computer technology.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
In his youth, Simon took an interest in [[land economics]] and [[Georgism]], an idea known at the time as "single tax".<ref name="Velupillai, Kumaraswamy 2000"/> The system is meant to redistribute unearned [[economic rent]] to the public and improve land use. In 1979, Simon still maintained these ideas and argued that [[land value tax]] should replace taxes on wages.<ref>Simon, Herbert. [http://www.cooperative-individualism.org/batt-h-william_real-explanation-for-the-tax-rebellion-2011.pdf "Letter to the Pittsburgh City Council"], December 13, 1979. Archived in the Herbert A. Simon Collected Papers, Carnegie Mellon University Library. Quote: "It is clearly preferable to impose the additional cost on land by increasing the land tax, rather than to increase the wage tax"</ref>
In his youth, Simon took an interest in [[land economics]] and [[Georgism]], an idea known at the time as "single tax".<ref name="Velupillai, Kumaraswamy 2000"/> The system is meant to redistribute unearned [[economic rent]] to the public and improve land use. In 1979, Simon still maintained these ideas and argued that [[land value tax]] should replace taxes on wages.<ref>Simon, Herbert. [http://www.cooperative-individualism.org/batt-h-william_real-explanation-for-the-tax-rebellion-2011.pdf "Letter to the Pittsburgh City Council"], December 13, 1979. Archived in the Herbert A. Simon Collected Papers, Carnegie Mellon University Library. Quote: "It is clearly preferable to impose the additional cost on land by increasing the land tax, rather than to increase the wage tax"</ref>
Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
==奖项和荣誉==
==奖项和荣誉==